(General 



n 


T5T^ 


i(^j 


k' 


> 


1 



'K , A' 



ThALH ELMER 



MjgiiMMMiMMiiiiiipiii^^ 




#LIBRi\IlY OF CONGRESS.! 

||l.ap."D2.\. |opjtighf |o # 

\ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, i 



AN OUTLINE 



GENERAL HISTORY 



jFor ti^e M^t of Scftoolis. 



i / BY 

M. E. THALHEIMER, 

Author of "A Manual of Ancient History," ''A Manual of Mediceval 
and Modem History," "A History of Efigland," etc. 



V 




VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO. 

137 Walnut Street 28 Bond Street 

cincinnati ' new york 



/^r7 



THE LIBRARY 
or CONGRESS 

WASHINGTON 



Copyright 

1877 

BY Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. 





Electrotyped at 


Eclectic Press 




Franklin Type Foundry 


Van Antwerp. Bragg & Co 




Cincinnati 


Cincinnati 


)9^^ 




1 


d3(^ 







I 



PREFACE. 



The Outline of General History has been prepared with 
especial regard to common schools. 

Several distinguished teachers, while expressing their 
kind approval of the Manuals of Ancient, Medieval and 
Modern History, by the same author, have regretted that 
these volumes are, in size and general scope, beyond the 
range of a majority of pupils. For many of these — so 
short is the time devoted to education — the most that 
the school can offer is a clear outline of the world's 
history, affording a system of classification for future 
reading, or, at least, supplying needed intelligence con- 
cerning nations whose present movements constitute a 
chief interest of our times. The Manuals will be found 
useful as books of reference, and may well be used at each 
recitation to complete the impression received from the 
memorized lesson. 

It is believed that the Outline, from the simplicity of 
its arrangement and style, will present no difficulty to 
any pupil who is old enough to enter upon the study of 
General History; while the comprehensiveness of its plan 
may render it a sufficient guide to older students, whose 
time does not permit them to undertake a larger book. 

(iii) 



IV PREFACE. 



The references to authorities, at the end of each chapter, 
will, perhaps, aid teachers in presenting a fuller narrative 
whenever the time and circumstances of the class admit 
of it. The Map Questions will, if thoroughly studied, 
add much to the clearness of conception in the mind of 
the student. 

The Maps themselves, which form an important element 
in the value of the work, have been prepared with much 
expense of time and labor, by the personal direction of 
one of the Publishers, to whom the author is under great 
obligations. 

Acknowledgments are also due to Mr. H. F. Farny, 
for the delicate and beautiful drawings with which he has 
illustrated the book. His choice of subjects, no less than 
the minute accuracy of his execution, evinces remarkable 
fidelity to historical truth. 

The author has been unwilling to disfigure the pages 
of the text with marks for pronunciation — distracting the 
pupil's mind, by their uncouthness, from the facts to be 
communicated — but wherever there seemed to be a pos- 
sibility of error, names have been carefully marked in the 
Index. 

It is earnestly hoped that this little book may contribute 
something to the facility and enjoyment of the study of 
History in our schools. 



Brooklyn, N. Y., ] 

August, 1S77. I 



CONTENTS 



Introduction Page 7 

BOOK L— THE ANCIENT WORLD. 
PART I. — Nations of Asia and Africa. 

Chapter P^ge 
I. Dispersion of Races — Chaldiiea, Assyria, Media, and 

Babylonia ....... 9 

II. Smaller Asiatic States — Phcenicia, Syria, and Asia 

Minor 17 

III. The Hebrews 21 

IV. The Medo-Persian Empire ..... 25 
V. African States and Colonies ..... 34 

PART II. — Hellenic States. 

VI. Earliest History of the Greeks — their Religion . 42 

VII. Sparta and Athens ....... 51 

VIII. The Persian, Peloponnesian, and Corinthian Wars . 56 

IX. Greek Literature, Philosophy, and Art ... 66 

X. Alexander the Great ...... 74 

XI. Successors of Alexander ...... 77 



PART HI. — Rome. 

XII. The Roman Kingdom — Its Religion 

XIII. The Roman Republic — Samnite Wars 

XIV, The Roman Republic, Continued — Punic Wars 
XV. " " " Civil Wars 

XVI. The Roman Empire ..... 

XVII. " " Continued 

XVIII. The Northern Barbarians .... 

(V) 



82 

86 

93 

99 

108 

114 

120 



CONTENTS. 



BOOK II. — MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

Introduction 

PART I.— The Dark Ages. 

Chapter 

I. Settlements of the Northern Tribes 

11. The Roman Empire in the East 

III. The Saracens ..... 

IV. The Western Empire Restored 
V. The Northmen 



Page 127 



VI. 
VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 



PART II.— The Middle Ages 



The Crusades . 
Guelfs and Ghibellines 

Cities 
The Tartar Conquests 
Plantagenets in England . 
House of Capet in France 
The Empire and the Church 
Languages and Literature 
Dawn of the Modern Era 



Rise of Italian and German 



129 
132 
134 
138 
146 



153 

161 
166 
169 
176 
182 
186 
189 



BOOK III.— MODERN HISTORY. 



I. The French in Italy ..... 

II. Charles V. and the Reformation — The Turks 

III. House of Orleans in France .... 

IV. The Tudors in England ..... 
V. Rise of the Dutch Republic .... 

VI. The Stuarts in Great Britain .... 

VII. The House of Austria and the Thirty Years' War 

VIII. European Colonies ...... 

IX. The Northern Kingdoms .... 

X. The Bourbons in France .... 

XI. Great Britain under the House of Brunswick . 

XIL British Empire in the East .... 

XIII. The P'rench Revolution ..... 

XIV. Absolutists and Liberals in Europe 

XV. The Second French Empire .... 

XVI. American Affairs ...... 



197 
202 
210 

215 

224 
230 
242 
248 

254 
264 

274 
284 
289 

303 
310 

318 



OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

1. From the earliest known times, men have been 
divided into two classes — those who, wandering from 
place to place, lived iipon the wild products of the earth, 
or upon the milk and flesh of their herds; and those 
who, preferring setded abodes, built cities and villages, 
and increased their wealth by mining, tillage, mechanical 
arts, and commerce. 

2. The first settled communities could only exist near 
great rivers, where the fertile soil afforded plenty of food, 
as in the valleys of the Ganges, Indus, Tigris, Euphrates, 
and Nile; while beyond the great mountain barrier which 
divides central from southern Asia, roamed the ancient 
Scythians, ancestors of fierce and wandering tribes, which 
have often burst their bounds, carrying ruin to the rich 
cities and harvest fields of the southern plains. With the 
progress of the world, the nomadic or wandering races 
have become fewer, and the civilized more numerous; 
but to this day the steppes of central Asia are occupied 
by roving tribes. 

3. History begins with the formation of settled com- 
munities. Other sciences deal with man as an animal, 
or classify the several races according to their languages, 
habitations, and use of metals. History has to do with 

(7) 



8 INTRODUCTION. 



civilized man, and describes the raids of barbarians only as 
it tells of earthquakes and floods which have overthrown 
his dwellings and destroyed his wealth. 

4. The populous communities of India, China, and 
Japan — though they contributed their jewels, spices, per- 
fumes, and silken garments to the luxury of the western 
Asiatics — were so little known to the Greek and Roman 
writers, that they also are beyond the range of ancient 
History. We have only to tell the story of those nations 
which, through their art, their literature, or their laws, 
have helped to make our modern society what it is. 

5. History is divided into three periods: Ancient, Me- 
diaeval, and Modern. 

Ancient History describes the states that rose and fell 
in western Asia, Africa, and Europe, until the time when 
the German race became predominant in the latter, and 
overthrew the Roman Empire of the West. 

Mediaeval History covers the thousand years between 
the breaking-up of the old order and the establishment of 
the new. It tells how the tribes of northern barbarians 
grew to be the nations of modern Europe. 

The opening of Modern History is marked by the fall 
of the Eastern Roman Empire, the revival of learning, the 
multiplication of printed books, the discovery of America, 
and the reformation in religion. 






Cuneiform Characters. 



BOOK I.— THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



PART I. — Nations of Asia and Africa. 



CHAPTER I. 



DISPERSION OF RACES — CHALD^^A, ASSYRIA, MEDIA, AND 
BABYLONIA. 




Assyrian War Chariot. 

^^^■^HE earliest known attempt to form a settled 
W^\ community was made by the sons of Noah, 
^^^ at Babel, after the Flood. It was defeated by 
the Confusion of Tongues. See Gen. xi : 4-9. The 
three families then separated. The children of Japhet 
were divided, one part traveling westward to Asia Minor 
and Greece, while another, moving eastward, occupied the 

(9) 



lO THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

table-lands of Iran, Bactria, and nordiern India. They 
were die parents of the Indo-Germanic or Aryan race, 
whose active intellect has made it the leader of the world 
in art, literature, and laws. 

7. The children of Shem remained upon the fertile 
plains of the Tigris and Euphrates, This family has ever 
been distinguished for intense religious feeling; and from 
its ranks came the Chosen People, to whom were com- 
mitted the written revelations of God. 

Part of the Hamites moved to the shores of the Med- 
iterranean, and established the great empire of Egypt; 
while Nimrod, a grandson of Ham, built Babylon, and 
became the founder of the Chaldaean Kingdom south of 
the Euphrates. The Hamites were great builders : in 
Egypt their massive pyramids and temples have proved 
almost as lasting as the eternal hills; but in Chaldsea the 
want of stone compelled them to use a more perishable 
material. Gen. xi : 3. From the clay of the plain and a 
natural bituminous cement, they erected buildings which 
were the wonders of the ancient world. 

8. The Chaldseans were diligent students of the heavens, 
and their astronomical records date from the twenty-third 
century before Christ. They were the inventors of writing, 
which the Phoenician merchants learned from them and 
taught to the rest of the world. In writing, as in build- 
ing, their ingenuity enabled them to make use of simple 
and rude materials; their wedge-shaped letters were im- 
pressed, with a stick, upon tablets or cylinders of clay, 
which were afterward either baked or dried in the sun. 
The earliest Chaldaean literature, so far as it has yet been 
read, consists chiefly of prayers, hymns, and charms against 
evil spirits. 

9. In the thirteenth century B. C, Chaldrea was ab- 
sorbed into the Semitic Empire of Assyria. This, at its 
greatest extent, reached from the Nile and the Mediter- 



ASSY JUAN EMPIRE. II 

ranean on the west to the mountains of Media on the 
east. The Assyrians were a vigorous nation, "all mighty 
men ; " and their kings commonly led their armies in 
person, sharing the hardships of night-marches and toil- 
some campaigns among the mountains. 

a. The First Period of Assyrian history begins in un- 
known antiquity, and ends with the Conquest of Babylon 
by Tiglathi-nin, about 1250 B. C. 

b. The Second Period extends from the latter event to 
the independence of Babylon, about 745 B. C. 

c. The Third Period comprises the New or Lower Em- 
pire of Assyria, B. C. 745-625. 

10. Although monuments, lately discovered, give com- 
plete lists of the Assyrian kings, from B. C. 1850, yet we 
know very little of the early centuries of their history. It 
was Tiglath-pileser I ( B. C. 11 20-1 100) who made As- 
syria the foremost nation in the world. It declined as 
the Hebrew monarchy expanded, but became powerful 
again after the death of Solomon. 

11. Tva-lush IV, or Vul-nira'ri (B. C. 810-781), Avas 
the husband of Sam'mura'mit, a Babylonian princess, whom 
the Greeks called Semiramis. Almost all the great cities 
of the East were said to have been built by her; and 
w^onderful stories were told of her conquests in Egypt, 
Ethiopia, and India. But these were mere fables. Her 
real power and wealth were, however, so great as to 
entitle her to a mention in Assyrian annals — an honor 
accorded to no other woman. There is some reason to 
believe that during this joint reign of Iva-lush and 
Sammuramit, the Hebrew prophet Jonah preached repent- 
ance to the Ninevites. (Read Jonah, iii and iv.) Forty 
years of humiliation followed, and the subject province 
of Babylon became not only independent but for a few 
years supreme. 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



12. Tiglath-pileser II (B. C. 745-727) was the founder 
of the New or Lower Assyrian Empire. He extended his 
dominion to the Mediterranean, and received tribute from 
all the kings of Syria and Palestine. Tyre, the richest 
maritime city in the world, paid three tons of gold into 
his treasury. He and his successors removed thousands 
of captive Israelites to Media and the river Gozan, filling 
their places with Babylonians. (Read 2 Kings xv : 29, 
and xvii : 4-6, 24-33.). 

13. Sargon (B. C. 721-705) was one of the greatest 
Assyrian kings. He defeated the Egyptians and Philis- 
tines in the great battle of Raphia, and afterward annexed 
Babylon to his empire. His son Sennach'erib (B. C. 705- 
680) gained many victories over Phoenicians, Philistines, 
Egyptians, and Ethiopians. He took "all the fenced 
cities of Judah," and insolently threatened Jerusalem. 
But his pride was humbled by the sudden destruction of 
185,000 of his soldiers, and he had to abandon most of 
his western conquests. (2 Kings xviii : 13-21, and xix.). 

14. E'sarhad'don (B. C. 680-667) conquered Babylonia, 
Egypt, and Arabia; and his son As'shur-ba'ni-pal raised the 
empire to its. greatest power and glory. He built many 
temples, and the finest of Assyrian palaces. He also 
collected a great library of clay tablets, inscribed with the 
records-!^ of former kings, their letters, treaties, and laws; 
discourses on mathematics, geography, and natural history; 



•••These kings' own words prove all that the Hebrew prophets 
wrote of their cruelty, not less than of their splendor and power. 
One of them thus describes his treatment of a conquered city: 
"The men, young and old, I took prisoners: of some I cut off the 
feet and hands; of others I cut off the noses, ears, and lips: of 
the young men's ears I made a heap ; of the old men's heads I 
built a tower. I exposed their heads as a trophy in front of their 
city. The chiklren I burnt in the flames. The city I destroyed 
and consumed and burnt in the fire." 



DESTRUCTION OF NINEVEH. 13 

directions for worship, and primeval traditions. Among 
the latter is the Chaldgean story of the Deluge, coinciding 
in many important points with that which we have in 
the Bible. 

15. The glory of Asshur-bani-pal was quickly followed 
by ruin under his successor. A wild horde of Scythians 
(§2) plundered the Assyrian cities; Media and Babylonia 
revolted; Nineveh was besieged and taken, its king was 
slain, and his dominions were divided between the con- 
querors, B. C. 625. The great cities of Assyria long lay 
in ruins: even the Greeks could only point to heaps of 
rubbish, under which Nineveh, Calah, and Resen were sup- 
posed to be buried. In late years, many of these mounds 
have been explored, and the magnificent palaces of Sargon, 
Sennacherib, and their successors, have contributed their 
sculptures to the adornment of European museums, and 
their inscriptions to our hitherto scanty knowledge of the 
primitive eastern nations. 

16. Media. — B. C. 633-558. The two allies who had 
put an end to the Assyrian Empire, were of very different 
rank. Media, a rough country south of the Caspian Sea, 
was inhabited by Aryan tribes, which had claimed inde- 
pendence of Assyria but little more than a century. The 
founder of Median greatness, who first united these tribes 
into one kingdom, was Cyax'ares, the joint-conqueror of 
Nineveh with Nabopolas'sar. He is said to have been the 
first Asiatic who properly organized an army, separating 
cavalry, spearmen, and archers into distinct companies. 
Under his reign, and that of his son Asty'ages, Media rose 
rapidly in wealth and importance. Extreme luxury took 
the place of rude manners and simple dress; and their 
passion for hunting was all that remained of the hardy 
Medes in the jeweled courtiers of King Astyages. At this 
point the Persians, a kindred but subject nation, gained the 
supremacy, by reason of their brave and manly character. 



M 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 




17. Babylonia. — Babylon, on the contrary, was the 
seat of one of the oldest Asiatic states, long celebrated 
for wealth, luxury, and learning. The wonderful clear- 
ness of the air over the plain of the Euphrates early 
attracted attention to a study of the stars. Observations 
were carefully recorded, and tables still existing prove the 
painstaking skill of the Babylonian astronomers. They 
measured time by sun-dials, and were the inventors of 
other astronomical instruments. 

18. After his country had been for 500 years subject 
to the Assyrian Empire (§ 9. b.)^ Nabonas'sar, a Baby- 
lonian general, set up an independent kingdom. But the 
fifth king of his line was taken captive by Sargon (§ 13); 
and for nearly a century the country was again ruled by 
Assyrian viceroys, though always ready to revolt. Fearing 
a double attack, from the north and south, which had 
been planned by the Medes, the last Assyrian king sent 
his general, Nabopolas'sar, to defend Babylon. But Nabo- 
polassar turned traitor; he allied himself with Cyaxares, 
and led a Babylonian army to the siege of Nineveh 



NEB UCIIADNEZZA R. 1 5 

(§16). In the division of the spoils, which followed the 
capture of the great city, Nabopolassar received Susiana, 
Babylonia, and Chaldaea, with all Syria even to the bor- 
ders of Egypt; while Assyria proper was added to the 
dominion of Cyaxares. 

19. B. C. 604-561. Nebuchadnez'zar, the second Baby- 
lonian king of this line, was one of the greatest monarchs 
whom the whole world has seen. By his victories over 
Egypt, Phoenicia, and Palestine, he reigned from the Med- 
iterranean to the Indus. The royal descendants of David 
ate the bitter bread of captivity at his table in Babylon 
(2 Kings xxiv : 10-16, and xxv : 6, 7, 27-30). He adorned 
his capital with the celebrated Hanging Gardens, and pro- 
tected it by walls of enormous thickness, while he en- 
riched the whole country by canals and reservoirs, which 
distributed the waters of the Euphrates over its vast and 
fertile plain. 

20. Babylonia became preeminent in industrial arts; 
and merchants from all parts of the world thronged her 
markets. There they found delicate muslins and linens, 
and magnificent carpets from the Babylonian looms, as 
well as fine wool from Cashmere ; pearls from the Persian 
Gulf; diamonds and perfumes from India; bronzes and 
musical instruments from Phoenicia. The amazing fertility 
of the Babylonian soil — probably the richest on the globe 
— afforded abundance of barley and dates for even the 
poorest people, while the rich enjoyed every luxury which 
the ancient world could boast. 

21. At the height of his grandeur, Nebuchadnezzar was 
suddenly cast out from the society of men, and for seven 
years fed with beasts. His pride being humbled, his 
reason returned; and, acknowledging the supremacy of the 
Most High, he resumed the "excellent majesty" of his 
kingly state (Daniel iv : 24-36). After a reign of 43 years, 
Nebuchadnezzar died, and with him ended the real great- 



i6 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



ness of his kingdom. Under Nabona'dius, the fourth of 
his successors, and the crown-prince Belshaz'zar, Babylon 
was taken by Cyrus, B. C. 538, and its whole territory was 
added to the Medo-Persian Empire. 

Describe, from Map I, the Rivers Tigris, Euphrates, Nile. 

Point out Chaldaea, Babylonia, Media, Assyria. Nineveh, Baby- 
lon, Raphia. 

Read Daniel i-v. Jeremiah xxvii : 5-8. Rawlinson's Five Ancient 
Eastern Monarchies. Herodotus, Volume I. Heeren's Asiatic Re- 
searches. 



Children of Shem. 


Children of Ham. 


Children of Japhet. 


Assyrians 


Chaldceans 


\ 


Hindus 






Asiatic Aryans j 


Medes and 
Persians 
^ Bactrians. 


Hebrews 


Phoenicians ■•• 




Greeks 
Romans 






European Aryans 


- Celts, 
Germans 


Arabs 


Egyptians 




, Slavonians. 



"•■•The language of the Phoenicians was Semitic, though they were 
descended from Canaan, son of Ham. 



CHAPTER II. 

SMALLER ASIATIC STATES. 




m^ hoenicia. — The narrow strip of land between Mt. 
Lebanon and the sea held some of the most im- 
portant communities of early times. They were not a 
nation, but a mere cluster of commercial cities, of which 
Tyre and Sidon were the chief. Now and then some 
great danger led them to form a league; but usually they 
were only united by a common language and religion, 
each city having its king or judge, who was also its high- 
priest. The name Phcenicians was given them by the 
Greeks. They called themselves Canaanites, and were of 
the same race as the tribes expelled or conquered by the 
Hebrews. 

23. The importance of Phoenicia was owing to her 
wonderful maritime enterprise. The Mediterranean and 
western Atlantic, the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian 
Ocean, all were highways for her ships, and their coasts 
and islands were dotted with her colonies. In her markets 
might be found silver from Spain, tin from Britain, and 
amber from the Baltic; gold and apes from Africa; pearls, 

Hist.- 2. (17) 



1 8 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

rubies, and diamonds from India and Ceylon; no less 
than engraved seals from Babylon; copper and horses 
from Armenia; oil, honey, and balm from Palestine; wine 
and white wool from Damascus; lambs and kids from the 
the Bedouin Arabs; and embroidered linen from Egypt. 
In return, the gold, silver, bronze, and glass-wares of the 
Phoenicians, and the precious dye known as Tyrian purple, 
found great favor in foreign markets. 

24. Penetrating the remotest corners of the ancient 
world, the Phoenicians were carriers of ideas as well as of 
merchandize. Our greatest debt to them is the alphabet 
(§8). They were not inventors either in art or literature, 
nor were they inspired, like the Greeks, with a love of 
freedom. So long as trade flourished, they were content 
to pay tribute to Assyria, or to lend their ships and sailors 
to the Pharaohs. This is true especially of Sidon and the 
smaller cities. Tyre withstood three memorable sieges: 
one of five years by Sargon, B. C. 720-715; another of 
thirteen years by Nebuchadnezzar, and a third by Alex- 
ander of Macedon (B. C. ^iZZi 2i'h'^)'> after which 8,000 of 
her people were slain, and 30,000 sold into slavery. The 
second of these sieges is celebrated in the Hebrew Script- 
ures (Ezekiel xxvi-xxviii). The bravery of the Tyrians 
probably secured favorable terms, for while a great num- 
ber sailed away with their families and goods to Carthage, 
others removed to an island half a mile from the main- 
land, and soon made New Tyre richer than the Old. 

25. When Nebuchadnezzar's kingdom was overthrown, 
the Phoenicians submitted to Cyrus, and their ships made 
the principal part of the Persian fleets. They brought cedar- 
wood from Lebanon to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem, 
as their forefathers had done in the days of Solomon and 
Hiram (i Kings v: 6-18. Ezra iii : 7). 

26. Syria. — The most important Syrian state had its 
seat at Damascus, one of the oldest cities in the world. 



ASIA MINOR. 19 



It alone was able to hold out against David and Solomon, 
who reigned over all the remaining country from the 
Mediterranean to the Euphrates ; but three centuries later 
it became subject to the Assyrian kings. Other Syrian 
nations were the Hamathites, in the valley of the Orontes; 
the northern and warlike Hittites, whose chief city was 
Carchemish; and the southern Hittites, a peaceable trading 
people near the Dead Sea, 

27. Asia Minor. — Probably the earliest inhabitants of 
Asia Minor were the Phrygians, a hardy race of farmers 
and vine-dressers, who had come from Armenia and 
brought thence a tradition of the Flood. Later came the 
Cappadocians, also sons of Japhet (§6), who crowded the 
Phrygians westward of the River Halys; then the Thracians, 
who took possession of the north-western coast, to which 
they gave the name Bithynia, from one of their tribes. 
The "brave, shield-bearing Faphlagonians'''' occupied the 
rest of the Euxine coast. A mixed population of Aryans 
and Shemites inhabited Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia on 
the southern shore; while the borders of the ^gean were 
very early colonized by Greeks. 

28. Among all these nations, Lydia became supreme 
under its last five kings, who ruled B. C. 694-546. In 
the time of Ardys, the second of these kings, occurred 
one of those great movements of the northern barbarians, 
which have been mentioned in § 2. The Cimmerians 
(Crimeans) of southern Russia, ancestors of the modern 
Cossacks, swarmed over Asia Minor, captured Sardis, the 
Lydian capital, and ravaged all the western provinces. 
Successive waves of the same great tide of migration 
spread through Italy; another, taking a more northerly 
direction, reached the western coast of Britain, where the 
Cymry, their descendants, still live. 

29. Croesus, the fifth and last king of Lydia, was noted 
for his enormous wealth. Having become master of all 



20 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



Asia Minor and the Isles of Greece, he leagued himself 
widi the great empires of Egypt and Babylon, to resist 
the Persian power, which was then becoming formidable. 
His efforts were vain; having fought one battle in Cappa- 
docia, Cyrus marched swiftly upon Sardis, defeated and 
captured its king, and made Lydia a province of the 
Persian Empire. 




Map 2. Asia Minor. 

Point out, on Maps i and 2, the following countries and cities: 

Phoenicia — Sidon, Tyre, Berytus. 

Syria — Damascus, Hamath, Carchemish. River Orontes. 

Asia Minor — Phrygia, Cappadocia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Lycia, 
Pamphylia, Cilicia, Lydia, Sardis. River Halys. Bound Asia Minor. 

Read Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchies, Vol. II, pp. 402-412, 444; 
Vol. Ill, 51-53, 392. Herodotus, Book I, g i ; III, ^19; IV, §42; 
V, §58. Grote's History of Greece, Chapters XVII, XVIII, XXXII. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE HEBREWS. 




ROM the Shemites east of the 
Euphrates, God called Abraham 
to remove westward and become 
the founder of a great nation. 
The story of this people — com- 
prising its education out of heathenism 
into the belief in One God, and the suc- 
cessive captivities which placed it at 
school in the great empires of Egypt and 
Babylonia just at the periods of their 
highest civilization — is among the most 
wonderful records in ancient history. 

31. Driven by famine into Egypt, 
the descendants of Abraham became 
slaves, and remained in bondage until 
Jewish High-Priest. ^^^^ numbered about 3,000,000 of souls. 
Then Moses arose — trained in all the "learning of the 
Egyptians" — to be the liberator, leader, and lawgiver of 
his people. Crossing the Red Sea, they were led to and fro 
in the desert forty years, receiving the Divine Law from 
Mt. Sinai, and suffering many penalties for their cowardice 
and disobedience, until most of those who had been slaves 
were dead. Then Joshua, Moses' successor, led their chil- 
dren into the Promised Land, which lay mainly between the 
Jordan and the Mediterranean. By a remarkable series of 
victories, the Canaanites were subdued or driven out, and 
the wanderers of the desert then became tillers of the soil. 

32. The Judges. — After Joshua's death, the people 
departed from the true faith, and were often subdued by 

(21) 



22 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

their heathen neighbors. From time to time a "Judge" 
arose, and deHvered them from their oppressors ; but, when 
he was dead, ''every man did that which was right in his 
own eyes," until a new calamity called for a new deliver- 
ance (Judges ii: 10-19). 

33. The Monarchy. — At length they demanded a 
king. Saul was chosen, and by a series of successful 
wars established the independence of Israel. But he lost 
the favor of God by disobedience, and David was anointed 
as his successor. The Philistines invaded the country; 
Saul and his sons were slain, and David was crowned at 
Hebron. For seven years Saul's only surviving son ruled 
nominally over eleven tribes; but on his death David be- 
came king of the whole country. 

34. He made Jerusalem his capital, and the home of 
the Hebrew worship. David was a great conqueror, and 
his kingdom extended from the borders of Egypt to the 
Euphrates. But his fame as a sacred poet is greater than 
as king or warrior. In lyrical strains, that have never 
been equaled for purity and elevation, he sang the victory 
of the soul that trusts in God. His old age was clouded 
with sorrow for the misconduct of his sons. But the suc- 
cessive rebellions of Ab'salom and Adoni'jah were ended by 
the death of the offenders, and Solomon, David's favorite 
son, came peacefully to the throne. 

35. Under Solomon, Israel first became a commercial 
nation. The king kept fleets of merchant vessels in the 
Red Sea and the Mediterranean, by means of which the 
luxuries of Europe, Asia, and Africa were brought to 
Jerusalem. His greatest work was the building of the 
Temple. Its dedication (B. C. 1004) was so important an 
event as to make the beginning of Hebrew chronology. 
(Read i Kings viii.) Solomon's wisdom surpassed that of 
all the children of the East and of Egypt (i Kings iii : 5- 
14; iv : 29-34; x: 23, 24); but in old age his heart was 



THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 23 

corrupted by luxury and power. His people were heavily 
taxed to maintain his court and his great public works. 
After his death, ten tribes revolted against Rehoboam, his 
son, and established the rival kingdom of Israel. 

36. Jeroboam, the first king of Israel, set up an idol- 
atrous worship, in order to wean his people from Jerusalem 
and the House of David. His wicked plan succeeded, 
and for centuries the only witnesses to the true God were 
solitary prophets (i Kings xvi : 1-3; xvii-xix). The nine- 
teen kings of Israel belonged to nine different famiHes, 
and many of them died by violence. The later kings had 
wars with Assyria, which ended in the overthrow of their 
kingdom, and the captivity of their people. The land 
was left so desolate that wild beasts prowled in the cities, 
until colonists were brought from beyond the Euphrates 
to replace the captive Israelites. (§12.). 

37. The kingdom of Judah remained loyal to the 
House of David; and, notwithstanding its exposed posi- 
tion between the great warring empires of Egypt and 
Assyria, it kept its independent existence nearly a century 
and a half longer than Israel. Of the eighteen kings who 
reigned over Judah alone, eight ''did right in the sight 
of the Lord." The rest were idolaters. The last of the 
good kings, Josiah, repaired the temple and discovered 
the Book of the Law, which had long been lost. A 
solemn Passover was now held (B. C. 623), at which not 
only the men of Judah but all true believers who were left 
in the desolate land of Israel wxre present, and renewed' 
their allegiance to the God of their fathers. 

38. During this reign, Palestine had its share in the 
Scythian invasions (§15), and a still greater calamity 
marked its close. Josiah was slain in battle (2 Chron. 
XXXV : 20-27). His son became a captive in Babylon, 
but the next king, Zedekiah, revolted and allied himself 
with Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar then besieged and took Jeru- 



24 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

salem, destroyed die Temple, and carried all its treasures, 
with the king and the whole nation, away to Babylon. 
The land was desolate, and Jewish history ceased, B. C. 
586, for fifty years. 

39. The empire of Nebuchadnezzar was then in its 
turn overthrown by the Persians, who, like the Jews, 
worshiped one God, and abhorred idolatry. Their great 
king, Cyrus, whom the Hebrew prophets had long ago 
described as the deHverer of their nation (Isa. xliv : 28- 
xlv: 4), B. C. 536, ordered the return of the Jews to their 
own land, and the rebuilding of Jerusalem and its temple. 
The neighboring heathen tribes violendy opposed the 
work; but Ar'taxerx'es, the great-grandson of Cyrus, con- 
ferred great powers on Ezra, the priest, and Nehemiah, the 
last of whom completed the defenses of Jerusalem. Ezra, 
meanwhile, collected and edited the sacred books which 
make the Old Testament. 

40. After his death, and Nehemiah's departure, the old 
troubles returned. Even the High Priest proved a traitor; 
and the Sabbath was profaned by common traffic and 
labor. Nehemiah came back from Persia as a royal gov- 
ernor, reformed these abuses, and expelled the new high- 
priest because he had married a pagan woman. There- 
upon, her father built a rival temple upon Mt. Gerizim, in 
Samaria, for the exiled priest; and there to this day the 
rites of Hebrew worship are maintained. But "the Jews 
had no dealings with the Samaritans;" indeed, at this 
point, the mixture of Jewish and pagan practices wholly 
ceased. 

Point out, on Map T, Jerusalem, the Red Sea, the River Euphrates. 

Note. — The story of the Hebrews— briefly outlined in this chapter 
— is told in the historical books of the Old Testament, from Genesis to 
Esther, and illustrated by the Psalms and Prophecies. Read, beside, 
Josephus' "Antiquities," Mihnan's "History of the Jews," and Stan- 
ley's "Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church." 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. 




Bas-Relief from Persepolis. 



'■ ^Y the victories of Cyrus, 
1—^ the Aryan or Indo- 
I B Germanic race became 
^ predominant in West- 

^ ern Asia, and it has ever 
since filled a chief place in 
universal history. The Medes 
and Persians were united un- 
der one king ; but while the 
former had become enfeebled 
by luxury (^i6), the latter 
still kept their hardy habits. 
"To ride the horse, to draw 
the bow, and to speak the 
truth," was the education of 



their noblemen. Their religion- — the purest, probably, of 
unrevealed faiths — taught them a belief in one God, and 
an abhorrence of idols. The Medes, on the contrary, had 
abandoned the doctrines which they and the Persians had 
received from Zoroas'ter, and, by contact with the Scythians, 
had adopted a gross form of Nature-worship. Fire was 
the chief object of their adoration. The Magi were their 
priests, without whose aid no man could pray, so elaborate 
were their religious rites. 

42. Cyrus, the Persian prince, spent many years of his 
youth at the court of Ecbat'ana, and gathered about him 
a party of the younger Medes, who at length revolted 
against Astyages and secured to their young chief the 
crown of the two kingdoms. No sooner was his power 

Hist. — 3. (25) 



26 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

confirmed at home, than a league of Babylon, Egypt, 
Lydia, and some Grecian states, demanded his attention 
abroad. He subdued Lydia (^^29), and added all Asia 
Minor to his dominion; then, turning eastward, he spent 
thirteen years in conquering the country between Media 
and Hindustan, including the populous j^rovinces of Hyr- 
cania, Parthia, Bactria, etc. 

43. His greatest success was the siege and capture of 
Babylon, This great capital of Nebuchadnezzar was the 
strongest city of the ancient world. Its walls were 200 
cubits high, and fifty in thickness. The Euphrates flowed 
through the city, but its banks were guarded by walls 
and brazen gates, while a network of canals, sluices, and 
reservoirs, above and below Babylon, was so contrived 
that the whole country could be laid under water in case 
of an enemy's approach. 

44. Nevertheless, the city fell. Cyrus had turned off 
the waters of the Euphrates into a lake without the walls, 
leaving -its usual bed dry. The crown-prince, Belshazzar, 
trusting in the strengtli of his defenses, left the river 
gates unguarded, while he and his courtiers were engaged 
in drunken revelry. Cyrus and his army entered the 
city; Belshazzar was slain at his palace gates; his father 
surrendered himself a prisoner, and Babylon became the 
winter-capital of the Medo-Persian Empire. -I^ 

45. Cyrus was killed in a war with the wandering tribes 
east of the Sea of Aral, and his son, Camby'ses, inherited 
his crown. He first took possession of Phoenicia and 
Cyprus, thus gaining fleets in the Mediterranean, and then 
proceeded with his father's plans for the conquest of 
Egypt. He desired also to conquer Carthage, and extend 



"* Read the story in Daniel v. "Darius, the Median," was prob- 
ably the deposed king, Astyages (^42), who was consoled for his lost 
kingdom by the rich satrapy of Babylon. 



REIGN OF DARIUS. 27 

his empire to the Atlantic, but the Phoenicians refused to 
serve against one of their own colonies (§24). His at- 
tempts upon the interior of Africa miserably failed. One 
army of 50,000 men was buried in the sands; another 
nearly perished of starvation. 

46. Cambyses enraged the Egyptians by ridiculing their 
worship, and stabbing their sacred calf with his own 
dagger. Their priests declared that he was smitten with 
madness, as a punishment for this act; but in truth his 
only insanity sprang from his unregulated passions. He 
had caused his only brother to be put to death. He now 
heard that the younger son of Cyrus had taken possession 
of the throne. This was, in fact, a Magian impostor, who 
happened to resemble the murdered prince; but as the 
crime of Cambyses was a secret, every one believed that 
his brother was really reigning at Ecbatana. In the act 
of setting out for home, Cambyses was mortally wounded, 
and died bewailing his crimes and follies. 

47. The usurper meanwhile closed the Persian temples, 
stopped the rebuilding of that of the Hebrews (Ezra iv : 
17-24), and restored the corrupt Magianism (§41) which 
Cyrus had overthrown. The Persian nobles began to suspect 
him, and by a bold attack put an end to his life and reign. 

48. Dari'us Hystas'pes, cousin of Cyrus, then became 
king of the Medes and Persians, and proceeded to make 
a compact and well governed empire out of the many 
countries which Cyrus and Cambyses had conquered. The 
native kings were removed, and the 20 satrapies or prov- 
inces, into which the empire was new^ly divided, were 
committed to Persian or Median governors. Each prov- 
ince had three chief officers : the satrap, who ruled in 
civil affairs; the gena-al, who controlled the army; and the 
royal secretary, w^ho kept the king' informed of all that was 
done. Neither of these could revolt w^ithout the others, 
and mutual jealousies kept them from combining. 



28 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

49. Instead of levying immense and arbitrary contribu- 
tions at any time, like other Asiatic monarchs, the Great 
King required from each province a regular yearly tribute 
according to its wealth. The satraps were permitted to 
support themselves out of the possessions of the people; 
but if convicted of extortion, they were sure to be pun- 
ished. Each satrap Hved in royal magnificence; but the 
court of the Great King far surpassed those of the prov- 
inces. 15,000 persons fed daily at his expense; a great 
army guarded his person. Chief among these were the 
ic,ooo ''Immortals," whose armor gUttered with gold, and 
who were chosen from all the nation for their strength, 
stature, and beauty. 

50. Darius endeavored to reconcile the Persian religion 
with Median fire-worship, which better suited the ceremo- 
nious splendor of his court. The Magi accepted the chief 
doctrines of Zoroaster, and were entrusted with the care 
of religious services. They kindled the sacred fires in 
the temples and on the summits of the mountains, and 
chanted hymns at the rising of the sun. They studied 
the starry heavens, and believed that they read the pur- 
poses of God in the motions of the planets, as well as in 
the interpretation of dreams (Daniel ii : i-io). The edu- 
cation of princes was committed to them, and they became 
the most trusted councilors of the king. 

51. Darius conquered an important part of western India, 
increasing his revenues one third by its gold tribute; then 
turned his arms against the Scythians. Their incursions a 
century before had not been forgotten (§15); like a black 
thunder-cloud in the north they seemed always threatening 
the existence of his empire; and, moreover, Darius was 
now planning a conquest of Greece, a movement which 
might easily be defeated by the wild tribes north of the 
Danube, unless they were first over-awed by his power. 
With an army of more than 700,000 men, he marched as 



BATTLE OF THERMOPYLJE. 29 

far as the present Russian town of Voronej, and burnt a 
Greek trading station, then the only town existing on that 
vast, desolate plain. The barbarians avoided a battle; 
having no settlements to defend, they only retired into 
remoter wildernesses; but Darius, returning in triumph 
two months after crossing the Danube, added to the num- 
ber of his subjects the "Scythians beyond the sea." One 
of his generals meanwhile conquered the Thracian coast, 
and extended the Persian power over Macedonia, which 
submitted to tribute and allegiance. 

52. The Asiatic Greeks soon afterward revolted, and 
their united forces surprised and burned Sardis. But 
Miletus, the chief of the Greek cities, and the leader of 
the revolt, was subdued in the sixth year of the war. 
The vengeance of Darius was then excited against the 
Athenians, who had aided their Asiatic brethren in rebellion 
(§109). His first expedition against European Greece 
was baffled by storms and the valor of the Thracians; the 
second was defeated by the Athenians in the battle of 
Mar'athon (§115). Before he could go in person to punish 
the Greeks, Darius died (B. C. 486). 

53. His son Xerx'es — probably the Ahasue'rus of the 
Book of Esther — spent seven years in arming and drilling 
recruits and providing stores of food; then, with more 
than 2,000,000 of fighting; men, he crossed the 
Hellespont into Europe. A fleet of 1,200 first- 
class, and 3,000 smaller vessels, bearing another half milHon 
of men, attended him along the shore. At Thermopylae, 
a narrow pass between Mt. CEta and the sea, the Spartan 
king, Leon'idas, awaited him with 6,000 men. For several 
days this little band withstood the whole Persian host, 
which was then admitted to the pass only by the treachery 
of a Greek. Leonidas now dismissed all his force except 
300 Spartans and 400 Thespians, who fought until the last 
man but one was slain. 



30 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

54. Meanwhile, storm and battle had destroyed 600 
Persian ships; but Xerxes marched on, receiving the 
submission of the greater part of central Greece. He 
plundered and burnt Athens, and prepared for a decisive 
naval battle off the Isle of Sal'amis. Here the Greeks 
won a still more glorious victory than that of Marathon. 
Well acquainted with the narrow seas, they drove their 
brazen-pointed ships dexterously into the clumsy Persian 
galleys. From early dawn till night the combat raged, 
while Xerxes watched it from his throne on Mt. ^ga'leos. 
At length, humbled and depressed, he withdrew his forces 
and marched for the Hellespont. 

55. His brother-in-law, Mardo'nius, remained with 300,- 
000 men in Thessaly, and was defeated and slain the 
next year in the battle of Platae'a. No Persian army was 
ever again seen in Greece, and for twelve years no Persian 
sail appeared in the ^gean. Xerxes, having wrecked his 
youthful hopes by vain ambition, gave up his later years 
to idle luxury, and was murdered at last by two of his 
servants (B. C. 465). 

56. B, C. 465-425. During the forty years' reign of 
his son Ar'taxerx'es, the Long-handed, the power of the 
empire declined. Egypt and Syria revolted, with aid from 
the Athenians; and though the Persian power was reestab- 
lished, the king was unable to punish the rebels as Darius 
would have done. He acknowledged the freedom of the 
Asiatic Greeks, and promised not to visit their shores with 

. either fleet or army. 

57. Three sons of Artaxerxes wore the crown in rapid 
succession, while the empire constantly became weaker. 
Under Darius H (B. C. 424-405), the queen, Parysa'tis, 
ruled in the palace, and her cruel passions alienated those 
who should have been the best supports of the throne. 
Egypt threw off the Persian yoke. Cyrus, a younger son 
of Darius and Parysatis, was satrap of Phrygia, Lydia, 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 31 

and Cappadocia; but with his mother's aid he plotted for 
the possession of the whole empire. 

58. At this point Darius II died, and Artaxerxes II 
succeeded him. Cyrus hired an army of Spartans, whom 
he kept ignorant of his true designs; and, marching against 
his brother, was defeated and slain at Cunax'a. 

The Greeks who had been entrapped into the '' ' '*°'' 

war were now in a perilous case, but Xen'ophon, whom 
they chose for one of their leaders, rescued them by a 
bold and successful movement toward the Black Sea. His 
story of the "Retreat of the Ten Thousand" is a wonder- 
ful record of hardships borne and dangers surmounted. 
Artaxerxes not only kept his kingdom, but he extended 
his power over the Greeks, in revenge for the aid which 
they had afforded his brother. 

59. B. C. 359 — 338. Artaxerxes III was a spirited and 
powerful monarch, and under him Egypt became again a 
Persian province. After the short and insignificant reign 
of his son. Arses, Darius Codomannus, one of the best, 
but also the most unfortunate of the Persian 

kings, came to the throne. The Greeks had 
been nursing their revenge against the Persians for nearly 
200 years. In the young king Alexander, of Macedon, 
they had now a leader abler than Cyrus, and more am- 
bitious than Xerxes. 

60. Crossing the Hellespont with his 35,000 Greeks, 
Alexander defeated the Persians at the little river Granicus, 
and proceeded to set free all the cities of the western 
coast. At Issus, near the gates of Syria, he 

first met Darius ; and the latter, with his half 
million of men, was utterly overthrown. After conquer- 
ing Syria, Phoenicia, and Egypt, Alexander marched east- 
ward for the grand contest which was to decide the fate 
of Asia. The battle is named from Arbela, where the 
Persian stores were deposited, though it was 20 miles from 



32 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

the field. Darius had mustered more than a milhon of 
men, next to the Greeks the finest soldiers in the world. 
He had chosen his ground on a great plain, east of the 
Tigris, where his chariots and horsemen, as well as the 
enormous numbers of his foot-soldiers, could act with the 
greatest advantage. 

6i. Nevertheless, the Macedonian phalanx* proved in- 
vincible, as usual. Penetrating to the very presence of 
Darius, who was fighting bravely at the center of his 
army, they broke up the Persian lines, and the king be- 
came a fugitive. Two of his officers wished to betray him 
to Alexander, but finding themselves too closely pressed, 
they wounded him and left him by the road-side to die. 
The Battle of Arbela put an end to the Medo-Persian 
Empire, which had lasted from the first victories of Cyrus, 
227 years (B. C 558-331)- 

62. The Persians were a "keen-witted race, loving poetry 
and art, though less inventive than the Babylonians or 
the Greeks. Our knowledge of their religion is derived 
from the Zend Avesta, a very ancient collection of hymns, 
prayers, and directions for religious ceremonies. It was 
the work of Zoroaster, a Bactrian prophet, who lived and 
taught long before the Medes or the Persians existed as 



*"The phalanx, which formed the center of Alexander's army, was 
the most effective body of heavy-armed troops known to ancient tactics. 
The men were placed sixteen deep, armed with the san'ssa or long 
pike, twenty-four feet in length. When set for action, the spear-heads 
of the first six ranks projected from the front In receiving a charge, 
the shield of each man, held over the head with the left arm, over- 
lapped that of his neighbor ; so that the entire body resembled a 
monster, clothed in the shell of a tortoise, and the bristles of a por- 
cupine. So long as it held together, the phalanx was invincible. 
Whether it advanced its vast weight upon an enemy, like a solid 
wall of steel, bristling with si)ear-points, or kneeling, with each pike 
planted in the ground, awaited the attack, few dared to encounter it." 
— Anc. Hist., '^i^St,, p. 100. 



PERSIA \ CHARACTEK. 33 

settled nations. This great reformer protested against the 
corrupt Nature-worship then prevalent in the East, and 
became the founder of a more spiritual faith (§41). 

63. The Persians were a frank, generous, and friendly 
people. They hated fraud and debt, and even contemned 
commerce, as involving temptations to deceit. Their Greek 
enemies declared that no one could surpass them in 
courage. Their devotion to their kings was admirable, 
until it became so excessive as to destroy their self-respect, 
and make them sacrifice all that was dearest to them to 
the lightest whim of their sovereign. Thus when Cam- 
byses (§46) brutally shot the son of one of his courtiers, 
the wretched father only complimented the king on his 
skillful archery ! 

64. The Medo-Persians excelled all other Asiatics in 
their talents for government ; and the dominion organized 
by Darius I was very different from the loosely connected 
countries which had been conquered and ruled by Sargon 
and Nebuchadnezzar. Darius and his successors knew 
what was passing in the remotest corners of their empire 
by means of a myriad of spies, who were called the 
"King's Eyes" and the "King's Ears,"' and by the swift 
couriers who continually traveled over the royal roads. 

Trace, upon Maps I, 2, and 3, the conquests of Cyrus, Cambyses, 
Darius. The march of Xerxes. The sites of Alexander's victories. 
Point out Ecbatana, Cunaxa, Platiea, Issus. 

Read the story of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand in Xenophon's 
"Anabasis," or in Grote's History of Greece. 

For general Persian history, see Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchies, 
Herodotus, and Heeren's Historical Researches; Asiatic Nations, 
Volume I. 



CHAPTER V. 





AFRICAN STATES AND COLONIES. 

IFRICA is, of all the continents, 
least fit for the home of man. 
One fifth of its surface is covered 
by a sea of sand, and the interior 
consists often of marshes and tangled 
forests. Its northern coast, however, is 
among the most favored regions of the 
globe. Here are the great Moorish 
corn-fields which once fed the hungry 
W r^ N^S ^/ millions of Rome; while the Nile valley 
^ 1 1 1 1 I II! "N. in the north-east has sustained, from 
the earliest times, a swarming popula- 
tion. This great river, in its overflow, 
spreads every year over the lowlands 
a new deposit of fertile soil, so that 
the farmer has only to cast his grain 
upon the retiring waters, and a plentiful harvest springs 
up without further tillage. No wonder that the old idol- 
aters worshiped the Nile ! 

66. Egypt. — Long before our oldest records were writ- 
ten, Hamites, from south-western Asia, had settled in the 
valley of the Nile (§7). At first they formed a multitude 
of petty states, but gradually these became united into the 
two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. Now and then 
some powerful monarch, reigning at Thebes or Memphis, 
reduced both kingdoms under his sway, and reigned from 
the Isle of Elephantis to the sea. 

67. The Egyptians were great builders, and their pyra- 

(34) 



Cleopatra's Cartouch. 



EG YPTIAN HIS TOR V. 35 

mids, temples, and palaces seem destined to stand as long 
as the earth itself endures. More than this, they were 
great writers, and, now that the key to their language has 
been found, we may read their characters and daily em- 
ployments, their thoughts about life, death, and immortality, 
almost as familiarly as those of our own ancestors. 

68. Egyptian history, before the Persian conquest, is 
divided into three Periods : 

I. The Old Empire, from unknown antiquity to 1900 
B. C. 

II. The Middle E.mpire, or that of the Shepherd Kings, 
1900- 1525 B. C. 

III. The New Empire, 1525-525. 

During these three periods, 26 Dynasties^ or families of 
kings, are on record; but sometimes two, three, or even 
five of these were reigning at once in different parts of 
the country. The kings of the Fourth Dy- 
nasty built most of the pyramids. These 
enormous masses of stone face the four main points of 
the compass; and one, known as the Great Pyramid, is so 
delicately adjusted for observations of the heavens that 
some wise men believe it to have been built by Divine 
direction. The useful and elegant arts made great pro- 
gress under the Pyramid-Kings. The copper-mines of the 
peninsula of Sinai were worked chiefly by captives taken 
in war; and the pictures on the tombs indicate a refined 
and intelligent life among the people. 

69. Egypt was soon divided into five separate kingdoms, 
and these, one by one, became the prey of invading tribes 
from Asia, led by the Shepherd Kings. These rude and 
ignorant people made slaves of the Egyptians, and arrested 
the progress of arts and sciences for 400 years. 

70. At length a deliverer was found in the Theban 
Amo'sis, who rallied the spirit of the Egyptians and drove 
out the intruders. He became king of the whole country. 



^6 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

and founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty. For 800 years 
Egypt continued to be a united kingdom, and enjoyed the 
brightest period of its history. The government, though 
strong, was mild to its native subjects, but probaoly cruel 
to the captive Hebrews, whose lives were made bitter with 
hard bondage (§31) in the brick-kilns, and who built many 
of the vast temjiles and palaces for which this period is 
celebrated (Exodus, i: 7-14). 

71. Greatest of Egyptian monarchs was Rameses II, 
who made conquests in Asia, Africa, and Europe, and 
brought home a great train of captives to build new 
monuments of his glory. Fearing the increasing numbers 
of the race already enslaved, he ordered every Hebrew 
boy to be thrown into the Nile. It was probably his son, 
Meneph'thah, who suffered the ten judgments of God for 
his oppressions, and finally let the Israelites go out from 
the land (Ex. vii : 19-xi : 5; xii : 29-33). For twenty 
years the buildings ceased, and the glory of the Egyptians 
was long in decline. 

72. During the seventh century B. C. the country was 
ruled by Assyria (g 14); but when that empire fell, Psam- 
met'ichus, and his yet greater son, Ne'cho, revived the 
Egyptian power. By conquering Phoenicia, Necho gained 
power on the sea, and the continent of Africa was first 
circumnavigated by his fleets. The story of the successful 
navigators was scarcely believed by the ancient world, 
because they declared that in rounding the southern cape, 
they had seen the sun to the northward. With our better 
system of astronomy we find this circumstance a strong 
confirmation of their truthfulness. Necho reigned for three 
years over all the country between the Mediterranean and 
Euphrates; but he was then defeated by Nebuchadnezzar 
(§19) in the great battle of Car'chemish, and lost all his 
possessions in Asia. His successors paid tribute to Baby- 
lon, and, when freed from that yoke, they soon fell under 



RELIGION OF THE EGYPTIANS. 37 



the greater power of the Persians. Egypt was conquered 
by Cambyses, and became a part of the Persian Empire. 

73. The Religion of the Egyptians contained some true 
and noble principles, mingled with a disgusting idolatry. 
They believed in a future life, and that its happiness 
depended on their well doing while here. Their tombs were 
always in sight, in the sandstone ridges which bounded the 
narrow valley of the Nile. Between the city of the living 
and that of the dead lay a sacred lake, before passing 
which to his final rest, every man, whether king or peasant, 
had to be approved by the judges. If his life was found 
to have been unworthy, he was forever shut out from the 
sepulcher of his fathers. It was believed that the soul 
also must appear before a judgment-seat of the gods, and 
only when sealed as "justified," could it enter the abode 
of the blessed. 

74. If acquitted by the judges, the body was embalmed 
and returned to the house of its earthly abode, to be kept 
at least a month, and sometimes even a year, while joyful 
feasts were held in its honor. It then passed the sacred 
lake, and was laid away in a tomb which was more richly 
ornamented than the home of the earthly life. In late 
years the repose of these Egyptian tombs has been broken, 
and many "mummies" — the mortal forms of the men and 
women who walked about the streets of Thebes or Heli- 
op'olis thousands of years ago — have been added to the 
"curiosities" of our museums. 

75. The Egyptian priests were philosophers, who knew 
a great deal more than they chose to tell the people. 
They believed in one Supreme God, and thought it impious 
to represent Him by any work of human hands; but they 
made Him known to the multitude under various names 
and attributes. As the Creator, he was Phthah ; as the 
Revealer, he was Amun; as the Benefactor and the Judge 
of men, he was Osiris, etc. Even plants and animals were 



38 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

supposed to possess some portion of his life, and were 
accordingly worshiped by the ignorant. Thus Memphis 
had its bull, Apis, which was regarded as a living symbol 
of Osiris. It was worshiped in life, and buried after death 
with great pomp and solemnity. Heliopolis, likewise, had 
its sacred calf, Ombos and Arsinoe their crocodiles, Thebes 
and Sais their sheep, all objects of local adoration. Every 
year at the rising of the Nile a seven days' feast was held 
in honor of Osiris, the preserver and benefactor of men. 

76. Castes. — The priests constituted the highest rank 
in the kingdom, and by their knowledge, especially of 
physical science, they exercised great power over the 
common people. Not only religious services, but all the 
learned professions were entrusted to them. Their medical 
skill was widely famed, so that kings of Assyria sent to 
Egypt for physicians. Their power over body and soul 
was equally great, for, as the earthly judges of the dead, 
they could refuse to any man the passport by which he 
hoped to enter the abode of Osiris. 

77. Next below the priests stood the soldier -caste. 
During intervals of service, the soldiers lived on their 
own lands, each man having an allotment of about six 
acres. The kings sprang either from the priestly or the 
military order, usually the former, and in any case each 
monarch was made a priest as part of the ceremony of 
his coronation. He bore the title Phrah (Pharaoh), signi- 
fying the sun; and as representing the god of light, was 
head of the state religion not less than of the monarchy. 

78. Below the two privileged classes were the great 
mass of the people, divided into four castes: farmers, 
boatman, aftisans, and herdsmen. They owned no land, 
at least after the time of Joseph, the Hebrew prime- 
minister, who during a famine required all proprietors to 
sell their acres for food, holding them afterward merely 
as tenants of the king (Gen. xlvii : 18-26). The system 



CARTHAGE FOUNDED. 39 



of castes crushed all ambition among the people. Every 
man was compelled to follow his father's occupation, and 
when the labor market became over crowded, the king 
had only to project some grand, but often useless work, 
and draft thousands of men into the quarries to draw 
stones for a new pyramid. One huge stone required the 
labor of 2,000 men, three years, for its transportation. 

79. In the crowded cities of Egypt many industries were 
carried on. Vases of glass and porcelain, and engraved 
gems, still exist to prove the skill and industry of this 
ancient people. They excelled all other nations in the 
fineness of their linen fabrics and in embroidery. Doubt- 
less the Hebrew women learned of them the art by which 
they contributed to the beauty of the Tabernacle (Exodus 
xxvi : 2i^ ; xxxv : 25). 

80. The genius of the Egyptians is chiefly shown in 
their architecture, which, for grandeur of proportions and 
the masses of material employed, has never been equaled. 
In the great Hall of Karnak, the whole Cathedral of Notre 
Dame could stand without touching either walls or ceiling; 
and the Temple of Karnak is connected with the palace of 
Luxor by an avenue of 1,000 colossal sphinxes. Egyptian 
sculpture was rather huge than beautiful; yet there is an 
imposing dignity in the gigantic figures of kings who guard 
the entrances of some temples. In painting, the Egyptians 
aimed to represent facts rather than to please the imagina- 
tion; and though the pictures in their tombs afford most 
interesting views of the daily life of the people, they are 
hardly to be considered as works of art. 

81. Carthage. — The numerous Phoenician colonies have 
already been mentioned {§23). Of these, the most im- 
portant was Carthage, founded by the Tyrian Queen, Dido, 
about 850 B. C. The neighboring African tribes were 
friendly, and the new city grew rapidly in size and wealth. 
Every known sea was penetrated by her ships; the Atlantic 



40 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

coast was explored from Norway to the Cape of (jood 
Hope, and the products of the whole ancient world filled 
her markets. The destruction of the mother city by 
Nebuchadnezzar ( § 24 ) threw nearly all of the western 
commerce of Tyre into the hands of the Carthaginians. 
All the Phoenician settlements in the western Mediterranean 
acknowledged Carthage as their leader, while her own 
colonies were scattered over Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, western 
Africa, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. 

82. The government of Carthage was copied, with little 
alteration, from that of Tyre. In place of the king were 
two officers called Suffetes or Judges, elected for life 
from certain noble families. They were aided, or perhaps 
oftener opposed, by a grand council of several hundreds of 
citizens, from which committees were chosen to administer 
the various departments of state. Another Council of 
One Hundred was afterwards appointed, before which all 
generals, returning from war, had to render account of 
their actions ; and so severe were its judgments, that an 
unfortunate commander sometimes chose to kill himself 
rather than appear before it. 

83. The religion of Tyre, of course, descended to her 
daughter, with the same gloomy and cruel observances. 
In times of calamity, children were thrown into the heated 
arms of a brazen image of Moloch, whence they rolled 
into a furnace of burning coals. No military movement 
was made without the direction of a prophet or diviner; 
and the progress of a battle was often interrupted while 
the general offered sacrifices. 

84. Three hundred years after her foundation, Carthage 
came into fierce collision with the Greek cities of Sicily and 
southern Italy, and destroyed one of their fleets in a naval 
battle. The Greeks were great traders, and, therefore, 
rivals of the Carthaginians. In 509 B. C, Carthage made 
a friendly treaty with the infant republic of Rome, which 



TKEA TY WrrH ROME. 41 



seemed less likely to become her rival, as the Romans 
despised trade, dividing their attention between farming 
and war with their Italian neighbors. They grew to be, 
however, the bitterest enemies, and finally the destroyers 
of Carthage. But the story of these later days will be 
more conveniently told in the history of Rome. 

Point out, on Maps I and 4, the course of the Nile. Thebes. 
Memphis. Carthage. 

Read, concerning Egypt, Wilkinson's Manners and Customs of 
the Ancient Egyptians; Herodotus, Book II; and Palmer's Egyptian 
Chronicles. Concerning Carthage, read Ileeren's Historical Re- 
searches; African Nations. 




Egyptian Sculptors. 



Hist. 



PART II. — Hellenic States. 



PERIOD I. — The Age of Fable. 



CHAPTER VI. 




EARLIEST HISTORY OF THE GREEKS 
— THEIR RELIGION. 



E 



^XCEPTING the Jews, 
the nations hitherto de- 
scribed have given but 
few ideas to our modern 
hfe. The influence of 
Egypt, Babylonia, and Persia 
has doubtless reached us in- 
directly through their dealings 
with the Hebrews and Greeks; 
but those mighty empires are 
too remote in time and cir- 
cumstances to have affected us 
greatly. Greece, on the con- 
trary, by her art, literature. 
Bust of Homer. and philosophy, has exerted a 

controlling influence upon the intellectual life of the world. 

86. The Greeks were Aryans, like the Medes, Persians, 
Bactrians, and the Brahmins of India, and were probably 
among the earliest emigrants from the original home in 

(42) 



THE GREEK PENINSULA. 



43 



Asia (^5). The first-comers were called Pelasgi; their 
successive abodes in Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy may 
be traced by remains of their buildings, which may still 
be seen, composed of enormous masses of rough stone 
joined without cement. Many other tribes followed, among 
whom the Hdle'ncs at length gained the chief joower in 
Greece, and gave their name to all the Aryan settlers of 




\hOtywpus 5"^ \ YlW^ 







Anilracl C ^ 






^ «7,f w^^H*'/" 



\\ I 1 < r 



' J^] U ^-J _Ly CcilBtliL Sal ! 

S /. 



Ten 
synD-> I 



^r %< 



Cj r^ -7, y 

~ Kc. 



vr 






Map 3. — Greece. 

that peninsula and its neighboring islands. '' Wherever 
the Hellenic tongue was spoken, there was Hellas;" the 
names of Greece and Greeks were of later origin. 

87. If you look upon Map 3, you will see that the 
Greek peninsula is divided, by deep gulfs, into a northern, 
a central, and a southern part. These are, moreover, in- 



44 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

tersected by mountain-chains, so that twenty-four separate 
states existed within this little peninsula, which is only 
250 miles long and 180 miles wide at its greatest extent. 
Northern Greece contained two countries, Thessaly and 
Epirus; Central Greece, eleven, of which Attica was the 
most celebrated, though not the largest; and the Pelopon- 
nesus, or Southern Greece, had also eleven, among which 
Lacedsemon, with Sparta for its capital, long held the 
supremacy. 

88. The Greeks were a bright, active, and enterprising 
people. Tempted by the bays and inlets which so deeply 
indent their coasts, and by the many islands w^hich afford 
easy stepping-stones to Asia, they very early became sailors 
and traders to foreign lands. Their cities in Asia Minor, 
Sicily, and southern Italy surpassed those of the mother- 
land in wealth and beauty. Thus open on every side to 
foreign influences, the Greeks could not fail to profit by 
the civilization of older nations. They learned the art of 
alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians, and derived many 
ideas concerning philosophy and religion from "the learn- 
ing of the Egyptians." 

89. Hellenic history will be treated in four periods: 

I. The Age of Fable, ending with the Dorian Migra- 
tion, 1 1 00 B. C. 

II. Authentic History, from the Migrations to the Per- 
sian Wars, 500 B. C. 

III. From the Beginning of Persian Wars to the Suprem- 
acy of Macedon, 338 B. C. 

IV. Empire of the Greeks in Europe, Asia, and Africa, 
until their conquest by the Romans, 146 B. C. 

90. The Age of Fable is also called the Heroic Age. 
The Heroes were supposed to have been sons of the gods, 
and to have surpassed all common men in strength, beauty, 
and greatness of soul. Among the most celebrated were 
Her'cules, whose "twelve labors" delivered the land from 



SIEGE OF TROY. 45 



noxious pools, savage beasts, and still more dangerous 
men ; The'seus, the civilizer of Attica, and founder of the 
Isthmian Games {§103); Mi'nos, king of Crete, a great 
lawgiver and judge; and Ja'son, a Thessalian prince, who 
sailed with fifty brave comrades through the Black Sea to 
Colchis in quest of the Golden Fleece. The stories of 
these and many other heroes may be read in the Greek 
Mythology. 

gi. Last and greatest of the heroic deeds, was the ten 
years' siege of Troy, in Asia Minor. Paris, son of the 
Trojan king Priam, had carried away Helen, wife of 
Menela^is, king of Sparta. All the Greek princes mustered 
their ships and men to punish the wicked deed; and, 
choosing Agamem'non, brother of the injured Menelaus, as 
their leader, they sailed across the blue y^gean, and be- 
sieged Troy. The closing scenes of the war are narrated 
by Homer in the Iliad, one of the greatest poems of the 
whole world's literature. 

92. Achiries, the favorite hero of the Greeks, quarreled 
with Agamemnon and shut himself up in his tent. Hector, 
the bravest of the Trojan princes, now gained the advan- 
tage and drove the Greeks to their ships. Patro'clus then 
borrowed the armor of Achilles, and at the head of his 
Myrmidons drove back the Trojans and saved the ships, 
but was himself slain by Hector. To avenge his friend, 
Achilles reappeared in battle, and killed the brave Hector, 
whose corpse he dragged behind his chariot about the 
walls of the city. Achilles himself perished in the fight, 
but the Greeks were victorious. Troy fell, and for ages 
lay so buried in ruins that some have even doubted 
whether it ever existed. Within a few years, however, the 
efforts of Dr. Schliemann have brought to light the palace 
of Priam, and many of its ornaments in gold, silver, and 
bronze, together with a gate and temple which were de- 
scribed by Homer. 



46 THE AXCIENT WORLD. 

93. Whether we beHeve the poet's story or not, his 
descriptions afford true pictures of early Greek customs 
in war, government, and home hfe. Each httle state 
(5^87) had its king, who was supposed to be descended 
from Zeus (§95), and who was at once the father, the 
judge, the general, and the priest of his people. A council 
of nobles, also sons of the gods, aided him with their 
wisdom and their arms. They had broad lands, many 
slaves, and treasures of gold and silver; but king and 
nobles lived simply and industriously, plowing and reap- 
ing their fields, building and rowing their boats, and even 
somedmes cooking their own dinners. 

94. Queens and noble ladies wove the wool and flax 
of their husbands' estates into garments for themselves and 
their families, while princesses brought water from the 
well, or helped their slaves to wash garments in the rivers. 
These early Greeks loved poetry, music, and all the arts; 
and in every house a cordial welcome awaited the minstrel 
who sang the brave deeds of heroes, or the visits of the 
gods to men. In this way Homer's poems passed from 
mouth to mouth centuries before they were committed to 
writing. 

95. Greek Religion was for the most part a refined 
form of Nature-worship. All Hellenes believed in Zens, 
the Thunderer, king of gods and men; in Posci'don, god of 
the sea; Apol'lo, the sun-god; A' res, god of war; HephcEs'fus, 
of fire and the useful arts; and in Her' vies, the promoter of 
commerce and wealth. The six chief goddesses were Hera, 
wife of Zeus; Athe'na, his favorite daughter; Ar'temis, the 
moon-goddess; Aphrodi'te, the impersonation of beauty and 
love; Hes'tia, the guardian of domestic life; and Deme'ter, 
the bountiful mother of harvests. These twelve consdtuted 
the supreme council of the gods, on the heights of Mt. 
Olympus; but every field, river, and forest was supposed 
to be inhabited by its sei)arate divinity. 



GREEK RELIGION. 47 



96. "Mysteries," in honor of Demeter, were celebrated 
every year at Eleusis, in Attica; and so reverently were 
they regarded, that it was a crime even to mention them 
in the presence of foreigners or others who were not 
admitted to a share in them. Of course we have no means 
of knowing what rites or doctrines were so secretly com- 
memorated; but ancient writers seem to intimate that they 
were connected with the hope of a future life. They gave 
a feeling of comfort and security to their participants; and, 
in case of sudden peril, strangers often asked each other, 
"Have you been initiated?" 

97. Much less respectable were the orgies or drunken 
rites held in honor of Diony'sus, god of the vine. Troops 
of women, called Bacchantes, spent whole nights upon the 
mountains, shouting, leaping, and clashing noisy instru- 
ments, even tearing human victims to pieces and devouring 
their flesh. They believed that this frenzy arose from the 
presence of the god, and that those who resisted it would 
be punished with madness. 

98. In spite of these strange occasional excesses, the 
Greeks believed that the Ruler of the world demanded 
truth, purity, and justice from men. In the earliest times, 
if deadly sins were committed, there was no hope; the 
guilty person was haunted by avenging goddesses, who 
never slept, but stood or walked by his side with flaming 
eyes until his crime was punished. Afterward the idea of 
atonement for sin was derived from Asia — perhaps indi- 
rectly from the Hebrews. In case of famine, pestilence, 
or defeat in war, whole cities or states endeavored to 
cleanse themselves by prayers and sacrifices, from some 
known or hidden crime, 

99. From very early times the gods were supposed to 
make known their will to men by dreams, oracles, divina- 
tions, and the motions of the stars. The most celebrated 
oracle was that of Apollo at Delphi. His priestess seated 



48 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

herself at the mouth of a cave, whence issued an intoxi- 
cating vapor, and, when sufficiendy giddy or inspired, 
uttered a response so obscure that the inquirer needed 
more wit to discover what it meant than to decide upon 
the best course of conduct for himself. It is said that 
Croesus, king of Lydia, asked counsel at Delphi, whether 
he should make war against Cyrus (§29). The reply was, 
"If thou make war against the Persians, thou shalt ruin 
a great empire." When Croesus had lost his crown, he 
was not much comforted by the priestess' explanation, that 
his own empire had been great, and was now ruined. 

100. The Heroic Age ended with important movements 
among the four Hellenic tribes.^ The barbarous Illyrians 
crossed the northern border, and crowded the Hellenes 
into closer quarters. The Dorians of central Greece then 
passed over to the Peloponnesus, of which they made 
themselves masters; and their leaders became kings re- 
spectively of Argos, Messenia, and Lacedsemon. Many 
lonians, thus crowded out of southern Greece, founded 
twelve new cities on the islands and eastern coasts of the 
^gean. These soon became rich and flourishing, and 
were early noted for the brilliant genius of their people. 
The poets Homer and Anac'reon were lonians of Asia. 

loi. The Dorians, not content with their conquered 
peninsula, seized the islands of Cos and Rhodes, and a 
small portion of the Asiatic mainland, where they built 
Cnidus and Halicarnassus. The ^olians also built many 
new cities, both in Asia and in Italy. 

Great changes occurred in the Grecian governments dur- 
ing the time of the Migrations. Almost all the monarchies 
were replaced by republics. Cities acquired much greater 
importance; in fact, each state now consisted of a city, 
with its little tract of subject territory. Though completely 
independent, and often envious and hostile toward each 



The Dorians, lonians, Achseans, and ^olians. 



THE OLYMPIC GAMES. 49 

other, the Greeks of all these states, in Europe and Asia, 
prided themselves upon their common language, religion, 
and ancestry, which distinguished them from the rest of 

mankind, whom they called barbarians or babblers. 

» 

102. This national feeling was kept alive by the great 
games and festivals, which, at least once in every year, 
drew together throngs of Greeks from the remotest corners 
of Hellas. Here were chanted the war-ballads of Homer, 
which described all the Greeks as united against a com- 
mon foe. Here, too, were friendly contests in running, 
leaping, wrestling, and racing with horses and chariots. 
Every Greek, however poor or unknown, was admitted to 
the competition; but all barbaria/is, though of royal birth, 
were excluded. The victor was crowned with wild olive, 
laurel, or pine; he was welcomed home with choral pro- 
cessions, and with all the honors that his native city 
could bestow. 

103. Oldest and most famous of all were the Olympic 
Games — said to have been founded by Hercules — which 
were celebrated once in four years, in E'lis, the Holy Land 
of the Hellenes. While these games lasted, all wars ceased; 
and so great was their importance, that the Greeks of 
later years used the period of their recurrence as a 
measure of time. The J^t'rsl Olympiad ^2js> B. C. 776-772. 
Next in rank were the Pythian Games, in honor of Apollo, 
held in Phocis, the third year of every Olympiad. They 
included competitions in music and poetry, as well as ath- 
letic contests. The praises of Zeus were again celebrated 
by the Nemean Games, every two years, near Cleonae in 
Argolis; and those of Poseidon, the sea god, in the alter- 
nate years, by the Isthmian Games, near his temple on 
the Isthmus of Corinth. 

104. Another bond of union was formed by leagues of 
kindred tribes, for worship and for mutual counsel and 
defense. The sacred Isle of Delos was the religious me- 

Hist. -5. 



50 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

tropolis of the Cyclades, whither all the Ionian cities sent 
yearly embassies to offer sacrifices to Apollo. The Ionian 
and Dorian cities, in Asia Minor, had each a federal 
union, whose meetings Avere celebrated by games and 
religious festivals; and on the Greek peninsula a grand 
'' Amphictyonic Council" of twelve tribes met twice every 
year — in the spring, at Delphi, and in the fall, at Anthela, 
near Thermopylae. The faith of the Council was pledged 
to the protection of every member by the following oath : 
''They would destroy no city of the Amphictyons, nor cut 
off their streams in war or peace; and if any should do so, 
they would march against him and destroy his cities; and 
should any pillage the property of the god (Apollo), or 
plan any thing against his temple, at Delphi (§99), they 
would take vengeance upon him with hand and foot and 
voice, and all their might." 

Name the natural boundaries of Greece. Point out, on Maps 2 
and 3, the Ambracian, Corinthian, and Saronic gulfs. The states of 
northern Greece. Of central Greece. Of the Peloponnesus. The 
islands of Euboea, Delos, Samos, Lesbos, Lemnos, Rhodes, Crete. 
Miletus, and other Ionian cities in Asia Minor. Mitylene, and other 
ALolian cities. Cnidus, and other Dorian cities. Troy. 

For ilhistration, read Kingsley's "Heroes;" Hawthoi-ne's "Wonder 
Book" and "Tanglewood Tales;" Homer's Iliad, in Bryant's or Lord 
Derby's translation. 

For information, see Felton's Smith's Greece, Book I, and the early 
volumes of Grote's History of Greece. 



PERIOD II. — From the Migrations to the Persian Wars. 



CHAPTER VII. 



SPARTA AND ATHENS. 



iHE history of the Greeks is 
mainly involved in that of 
the two leading states, Sparta 
and Athens. These not only 
represented the two more im- 
portant tribes, the Dorians and 
lonians, but the two opposing 
principles which divided every 
state in Greece, except, perhaps, 
Sparta herself: namely, the prin- 
ciples of oligarchy and democ?'acy, 
the former aiming to place the 
government in the hands of a few 
powerful men, the latter, to entrust 
it to the people themselves. The 
Dorians were remarkable for their 
severe and simple manners; the lonians, for the brilliancy 
and harmonious balance of their minds, and their genius 
for all the arts which beautify life. 

io6. The laws of Sparta were said to be the work of 
Lycurgus, who lived about 850 B. C. ; but, probably, he 
only shaped the customs already prevailing into more 
exact form. When the Dorians conquered the Peloponnesus 

(51) 




Pallas Athena. 



52 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



(§ioo), most of the former occupants of the country be- 
came tenants and slaves of their conquerors. The Spartans 
were but few in comparison with these subject Achaeans, 
and Lycur'gus resolved to make up, by military drill and 
efficiency, what they lacked in numbers. To this end, 
every Spartan was a soldier, and was taught that his life 
belonged to the state. 

107. Every newly-born babe was brought before a 
committee of old men, who decided upon his right to 
live. If puny or sickly, he was cast into a ravine to 
perish; but if he seemed likely to be strong, he was 
accepted as a son of Sparta, and was endowed with one 
nine-thousandth part of the public lands. At seven years 
of age he was taken from his mother, and, until he was 
sixty, lived the life of a soldier. He ate black broth at 
the public tables; he was toughened by exposure to heat, 
cold, hunger, thirst, fatigue, and scourging, and thought 
himself disgraced if a word or sound of complaint escaped 
him. The girls were almost as severely trained as their 
brothers, and learned to prefer the glory of Sparta above 
all home affections. One mother shouted for joy when 
told that her eight sons had perished on one battle-field. 

108. Sparta had always two kings, supposed to be 
descended from twin grandsons of Hercules; but their 
power was only that of priests and generals, subject to the 
Senate, and, later, to the committee of five "Ephors," who 
really governed the state. The population of Lacedaemon 
was divided into three classes: (i) the Spartans proper, 
descended from the Dorian conquerors, who kept- to them- 
selves all honors and power in the government, and lived 
in the city of Sparta as in a camp, always ready for mili- 
tary duty. Commerce and all useful arts were left to (2) 
the subject AcJucaus, who inhabited the country towns. The 
fields were cultivated by (3) Helots^ a race of serfs attached 
to the soil, who were kept in a most cruel slavery. To 



SP.IRTA AND A 71/ ENS. 53 

shut out foreign luxuries, I>ycurgus ordered Spartan money 
to be made of rusted iron, so that no other nation would 
receive it. 

log. For three hundred years from the time of Lycur- 
gus, Sparta was engaged in contests with her neighbors in 
the Peloponnesus — the Messenians, Arcadians, and Argives 
— which gave her the control of the peninsula. So great 
was her power, that she would, perhaps, have become 
mistress of all Greece, if the Persian Empire, now domi- 
nant in Asia, had not tried to extend itself into Europe. 
King Darius turned his revengeful eyes upon the Athe- 
nians (§52), and his efforts to subdue them — or, rather, 
their brave resistance — made them, after the wars, the 
leading power in Greece. 

no. Athens was not only the rival, but the perfect 
contrast of Sparta. More than any other people that ever 
lived, the Athenians loved music, poetry, eloquence, and 
all the arts of expression; while the Spartans prided them- 
selves upon their blunt, laconic speech, and thought it a 
crime to use three words where two would suffice. 

111. The last king of Athens fell in battle with the 
Dorians (§100), and for several centuries the nobles 
governed the state. Their power was often oppressive — 
especially when, in times of calamity, the poor were com- 
pelled to borrow money from them at a ruinous rate of 
interest, and became slaves from inability to pay their 
debts. At length, the people made their voice heard in a 
demand for written laws. To rebuke their presumption, 
the nobles appointed Dra'co, the sternest of their number, 
to prepare a code. Draco's laws were said to have been 
written with blood : the slightest crimes were punished 
with death, and the lives of all the people were placed at 
the mercy of the nobles. 

112. These cruel enactments drove the people to revolt, 
and the nobles, now convinced of their error, chose So'lon, 



54 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

the wisest of their class, to prepare a more just and Hberal 

constitution. He abohshed slavery for debt, 

■ ^^'^" gave to every freeman the right to vote, and 

laid the burdens of the state on those who were best able 

to bear them. 

113. Still the rights of the people were not fully secured. 
Pisis'tratus, a kinsman of Solon, the most popular and ac- 
complished man of his time, but also the most 
ambitious, managed to usurp the supreme power. 

For this reason he was called a tyrant; but, though he 
gained his power by force, we can not deny that he used 
it wisely and well. He strictly enforced Solon's laws, and 
did much for the improvement of the people. He first 
collected the war-ballads of Homer into the great epic 
poem called the Iliad; and his library, the first in Greece, 
was freely open to all who wished to consult it. Though 
he was twice expelled from Athens, and once remained in 
exile eighteen years, Pisistratus at length established his 
power; and his sons, Hip'pias and Hippar'chus, succeeded 
him peaceably at his death, 527 B. C. 

114. But the Athenians had now learned to be more 
careful of their liberties. Hipparchus was murdered by a 
citizen wiiom he had offended, and his brother, Hippias, 
was sent into exile. To prevent any citizen's becoming too 
powerful in future, the singular custom of ostracistn'^^ was 
introduced. The best of men could be exiled for ten years, 
without accusation, trial, or defense, simply by a vote 
of one fourth of the Athenian freemen. To be ostracised 
was no disgrace, for it implied no crime, but was a tes- 



*So called from oarpaiiov, the Greek name for the tile, or oyster- 
shell, on which the name of the person was written. If the Senate 
decided that public safety demanded the ostracism, the citizens 
assembled, on an appointed day, in the market-place, and cast 
these ballots in a heap. If one man's name was found on 6,000 
tiles, he left the city within ten days. 



ATHENIAN OSTRACISM. 55 

timony to the talents and sometimes even to the virtues of 
its victim. This precautionary measure was the work of 
CHs'thenes, who, next to Solon, may be considered as the 
founder of Athenian liberty. He ''took the people into 
partnership," and extended the rights of citizens to all 
free inhabitants of Attica. These he enrolled in ten tribes, 
each having an equal share in the control of civil and 
military matters. From this time Athens always had a 
"government by the people," excepting at two calamitous 
periods, when the Spartan faction, which existed in almost 
every city, was able to revolutionize its affairs. 

About ninety years after the adoption of Clisthenes' con- 
stitution, it happened that two great men called for the 
vote of the Senate, under which each hoped that the other 
would be ostracised. The Senate pronounced that some 
one must be exiled; but, before the day appointed for the 
popular vote, the rivals made up the quarrel, and agreed 
to "fire off the safety-gun of the republic" against an 
insignificant man, whose presence or absence could make 
no difference to his fellow-citizens. But the ostracism, 
thus degraded, was never called for again. "It was not 
against such as him," said a Greek writer, "that the shell 

was intended to be used." 

* 

Name the boundaries of Lacedasmon. Of Attica. Of Argolis, 
Arcadia, Messenia. 

Grote's History of Greece is the best authority for this period. 
Read, also, in Rawlinson's Herodotus, the two Essays following 
Book V. 



PERIOD III.— From the Beginning of the Persian Wars 
to the Ascendency of Macedon. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

MARATHON, THERMOPYL/E, SALAMIS : SUCCESSIVE SUPREMACIES OF 
ATHENS, SPARTA, THEBES, MACEDON. 

E have learned in the history of 
Persia (§52) how the Athenians 
drew upon themselves the venge- 
ance of the great King Darius, 
by aiding their brethren in Asia to 
revolt. The first fleet which he sent 
to conquer Greece was wrecked at 
Mt. Athos; but the second — after 
burning Carystus and Eretria, on the 
island of Euboea — landed 

B. C. 490. . 

100,000 men on the east- 
ern coast of Attica. The Athenians, 
led by Milti'ades, met them upon 
the plain of Marathon. Both armies 
fought long and bravely. The Medes 
and Persians were the most magnifi- 
cent soldiery in the world, and they outnumbered the 
Athenians ten to one. Nevertheless, they were driven to 
their ships with great slaughter, and sailed away to Asia. 
A ten years' breathing-space then enabled the Greeks to 
collect their forces. • 

(56) 




A Grecian Soldier. 



BATTLE OF SALAM/S. 57 

116. In the spring of 480, B. C, the greatest army that 
the world has ever seen (§53) came pouring into Greece. 
The two Spartan commanders, Leon'idas on land, and 
Eiirybi'ades with his fleet upon the sea, met Xerxes at 
Thermopylae. In this narrow pass between Mt. GLta and 
the Malian Gulf, a mere handful of Greeks held the whole 
Persian host at bay for more than a week. At length a 
treacherous Greek showed the Persians a path over the 
mountain, by which they could attack the little army in 
the rear. Thus betrayed, Leonidas dismissed all his forces 
excepting 300 Spartans and a few hundreds of Thespians 
and Thebans, and, rushing upon the enemy, fought until 
every man but one was slain. 

117. The gates of central Greece were now open, and 
the army of invaders pressed on. Eurybiades would have 
withdrawn the whole fleet to the Peloponnesus, leaving 
Athens to its fate; but Themis'tocles, the Athenian leader, 
persuaded him to stay long enough at Salamis to allow 
the people of Athens to find places of safety. The oracle 
at Delphi had directed them to seek refuge in ''wooden 
walls," which Themistocles assured them must mean their 
ships. A mournful procession of refugees immediately 
withdrew from the city, leaving behind only a few who 
were too poor or too feeble to be removed. Beautiful 
Athens was burnt, in revenge for the destruction of Sardis. 

118. The great decisive combat between the Greek and 
the Persian forces, took place in the straits of Salamis. 
Xerxes himself, from a golden throne upon the shore, 
watched the battle between his magnificent armament of 
1200 ships and fewer than 400 on the part of the Greeks. 
But the Greek pilots knew all the currents and soundings 
of these narrow seas, and could drive the brazen beaks 
of their light craft straight into the cumbrous Persian 
vessels. The battle was long and obstinate, but it ended 
in a glorious victory for the Greeks. Xerxes sailed away 



58 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

in bitter humiliation to his own land. The next autumn, 
his great general, Mardo'nius, was defeated and slain at 
Plataea, and the remnant of his fleet was destroyed the 
same day at Mycale on the opposite side of the yEgean. 

119. The Persian kings gave up the attempt to conquer 
Greece, but for two hundred years they never ceased to 
meddle in her affairs by bribery and by stirring up the 
jealousies of the several states. Even the Spartan regent 
Pausa'nias, who had won the victory of Platoea, was per- 
suaded by their golden promises to betray his country. 
His treason, however, was discovered in time, and he 
was starved to death in a temple of Athena, his own 
mother bringing the first stone to block up its gates. 
Athens, instead of Sparta, now became the leading state 
in Greece. 

120. A Hellenic League was formed for the protection 
of the islands and coasts of the /Egean against the Per- 
sians. Its treasury, to which all the maritime states con- 
tributed, was on the sacred isle of Pelos. "Aristi'des the 
Just" — the best and greatest Athenian of his time — was 

the first president of the league; and such con- 

■ ^'''^' fidence did all men place in his wisdom and 

nitegrity, that he alone decided how much each state 

should pay into its treasury, and no one ever complained 

of his assessments. 

121. His successor .was Ci'mon, the son of Miltiades. 
In 466 B. C., he gained a great victory over the Persians 
at the River Eurymedon, and swept the coasts of Asia 
Minor of their ships and armies. Cimon's immense wealth 
and generosity made him the idol of the Athenians, whose 
city he adorned with marble colonnades and temples, with 
groves and fountains, until it became the glory of all 
Greece. Yet even he had to suffer, as Aristides and 
Themistocles had suffered before him, from the ingratitude 
and fickleness of the Athenians. 



AGE OF PERICLES. 59 

122. Sparta was in great trouble through a revolt of the 
Helots (§ 108). These wretched people found courage at 
last to revenge themselves for centuries of ill-treatment; 
and the Messenians seized the opportunity to strike a blow 
for independence (§ 109). During the ten years' war 
which followed, Cimon persuaded the Athenians to forget 
their causes of complaint against Sparta and send her aid 
in her distress. He himself twice led an army to her 
assistance. But Spartan hatred of Athens could not even 
now be suppressed. The Athenian troops were insultingly 
dismissed; and so great was the vexation at home, that 
Cimon was ostracised as a friend of Sparta (§ 114). 

123. The popular party now came into power, with 
Per'icles, the most brilliant of all Athenian leaders, at their 
head. Knowing that freemen can only be governed by 
reason and persuasion, he had spent his youth in studying 
the history and the interests of Athens, the science of gov- 
ernment, and the arts of eloquence. Nothing could exceed 
the power and beauty of his oratory, or the influence he 
acquired over his countrymen. 

124. The "Age of Pericles" is celebrated as the cul- 
minating period, both in the power and genius of Athens. 
Her maritime empire extended over all the Greek coasts 
and islands, and on the main-land she was the successful 
rival of Sparta. At the same time sculptors and architects, 
painters and dramatic j^oets were producing the most per- 
fect works of art that the world has ever seen; and the 
liberal encouragement offered to talent drew to Athens the 
greatest intellects from every land. Athenian citizens spent 
a large portion of their time in discussing public affairs, for 
private business was chiefly in the hands of slaves, who 
were three or four times as numerous as the freemen. 
Hence, it happened that the whole mass of citizens was 
better trained to civic duties than was ever any similar 
class of people, before or since. We must not imagine 



6o THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



Attic slaves to have been in condition at all like the 
Helots (§ 1 08). The Athenians were of more gentle and 
generous nature than the Spartans, and no cases of cruelty 
are on record. 

125. The perpetual rivalry of the two leading states 
occasioned several wars, one of which grew from a dispute 
for the control of the Delphic oracle. Pericles, though 
free from superstition himself, well understood its power 
over others, and he desired to enlist Apollo on the side of 

Athens. The rashness of the younger Athen- 
'*'^^' ians led to a sad defeat at Coronaea in Boeotia; 
and most of the allied cities in central Greece now re- 
sumed their oligarchic governments under the influence 
of Sparta (§105). 

126. From these and many other elements of strife arose 
the Peloponnesian war, which, for twenty-seven years (B. 
C. 431-404), involved all Greece in calamities. Almost 
every summer a Spartan army ravaged the fields of Attica, 
and the people took refuge within the walls of Athens. 
Every nook was crowded; a plague broke out among the 
swarming population, who ascribed it to the wrath of 
Apollo, the especial protector of the Spartans. Their com- 
plaints were loud against Pericles, whose cautious policy 
they were unable to understand. He was even accused of 
embezzling the public funds, and was heavily fined. 

127. Pericles bore their unjust accusations with admir- 
able patience, but his strength was now broken by afflic- 
tion. His son and nearest friends had died of the plague; 
a slow fever seized the great statesman himself As he lay 
dying, his friends around his bed were talking of his great 
deeds, when he interrupted them, saying, "All that you 
are praising was due to the favor of Heaven. What I 
pride myself upon is that no Athenian has ever had oc- 
casion to mourn on my account." 



THE PELOPONNESJAN WAR. 6 1 



128. The war grew more cruel every year. Mitylene, 
having revolted against Athens, was brought back to its 
allegiance by its own popular party, which outnumbered 
the friends of Si)arta. Nevertheless, the Athenian assembly 
which was called to decide the fate of the recaptured city — 
carried away by the eloquence of Cleon, a violent dem- 
agogue — sentenced all the men of Mitylene to death, and 
its women to slavery! The author of this brutal decree 
dispatched a galley to Lesbos with orders for its immediate 
execution. But a night's rest brought a better mind to the 
Athenians; they revoked their cruel act, and sent another 
galley in still greater haste to save the lives of the doomed 
people. 

129. Happily, it arrived in time; the Mityleneans were 
spared, but the walls of their city were destroyed, and their 
fleet was absorbed into that of Athens. Corcyra soon after- 
ward suffered a reign of terror in which brothers murdered 
brothers, and fathers their own sons. Sparta, afraid of her 
slaves, treacherously murdered 2000 Helots, the bravest 
and, therefore, the most dangerous of their class. Floods, 
earthquake, and pestilence combined with the evil passions 
of men to destroy unhappy Hellas. 

130. All parties were now wearied out, and, in 421 B. 
C, the Peace of Nicias provided for fifty years' truce be- 
tween Sparta and Athens. Unhappily, war soon broke out 
again, through the ambition of Al'cibi'ades, a brilliant young 
Athenian, whose genius might have made him the glory 
of his native city, but who was in fact the chief occasion 
of its ruin. He persuaded his countrymen to take part 
in a war between the Doric and Ionic colonists in Sicily; 
and was one of the three generals who commanded the 
Athenian forces. But he was soon called home to answer 
a charge of sacrilege: namely, of having burlesqued the 
Eleusinian Mysteries (^ 96) in a drunken frolic. He took 
refuge with the Spartans, and betrayed to them all the 



62 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

plans of the Athenians. The Sicilian expedition ended in 
a miserable failure. The Athenian fleet was destroyed in 
the harbor of Syracuse; the soldiers perished either in 
battle or of starvation ; and the few who survived were sold 
as slaves. 

131. All the rivals, enemies, and unwilling subjects of 
Athens now took advantage of her distress. Sparta made 
a treaty with the king of Persia, offering to put him in 
possession of the whole Grecian territory north of the 
Corinthian Gulf, with all the islands and coasts of the 
yEgean. But Alcibiades had found a new refuge with the 
Persian governor of Asia Minor, and by skillful flatteries he 
partly defeated the Spartan plans. By several great naval 
victories he regained control of the grain-fleets in the Black 
Sea, and so relieved a famine in Athens. For these serv- 
ices his offenses were pardoned, and he was made general 
with unlimited powers. 

132. Persian gold and Spartan skill, however, turned the 
scale against the Athenians; and they suffered a defeat 

at ^gos-Potami, which ended their supremacy 
in Greece. The Spartans besieged and took 
Athens. Its walls were destroyed, and its government was 
remodeled on the Spartan pattern. The chief power was 
committed to Thirty Tyrants, who for eight months sub- 
jected the citizens to fines, imprisonment, or death at their 
will. The second period of Spartan supremacy (B. C. 
404-371) was marked by the overthrow of free govern- 
ments throughout Greece. 

133. But Sparta's leadership was not easy to maintain. 
The king of Persia was enraged by the aid she had given 
to his rebellious brother (§ 58), and a league of many 
Grecian states, disgusted by her oyerbearing tyranny, 
brought on the Corinthian war. Sparta had her best and 
greatest man, the king Ages'ila'us, for her chief commander, 
and gained decisive victories over her enemies at Corinth 



DEATH OF SOCRATES. 6^ 

and Coronsea. A great naval battle with the Athenians 
and Persians off Cnidus was less fortunate to her, for it 
resulted in the destruction of the greater part of her fleet 
and the rapid decline of her power. 

134. Athens meanwhile had been rescued from Spartan 
rule by Thrasybu'lus, one of her exiled citizens, who mus- 
tered an army of his fellow-exiles and defeated the Spartan 
forces at Phy'le and Muny'chia. The laws of Solon were 
restored. The only blot upon the happy time was the ex- 
ecution of the philosopher Soc'rates — one of the best and 
wisest men that ever lived — on a false charge of having 
introduced a new worship and corrupted the Athenian 
youth. Socrates was, in fact, too wise to believe in all the 
superstitions of the Greeks; but he w^as also too prudent to 
destroy the childish faith of his pupils until they were able 
to receive something better in the place of it. He refused 
to accept his life on the condition of forbearing to teach; 
for the great aim and passion of his life was to promote 
virtue and wisdom in the young. He spent the thirty days 
of his imprisonment in cheerful converse with his friends, 
expressing to the last his firm conviction of the soul's im- 
mortality. When the appointed moment arrived, he drank 
the poison hemlock and calmly expired. 

135. The Spartans, weary at length of the disastrous war, 
sent a messenger to the Persian court, begging the Great 
King to interfere and settle the affairs of Greece. This 
was his sentence: *'King Artaxerxes thinks it just that the 
cities in Asia and the islands of Clazom'enae and Cyprus 
should belong to him. He thinks it just to leave all the 
other Grecian cities, both small and great, independent, 
except Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, which are to belong 
to Athens as of old." — B. C. 387. 

136. Spartan power having fallen, Thebes became the 
next leader of the Greeks. This Boeotian city had been 
for some years governed by a Spartan garrison; it was 



64 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

rescued by the bold and ingenious contrivance of one of 
its own noblemen, and became the head of a new confed- 
eracy numbering seventy cities. The Theban Epam'inon'das 
was the greatest general whom Greece ever produced, and 
his purity of character was still more admirable than his 
military genius. At Leuctra, a few miles north- 
^' *^" ^^'' west of Platsea, the most fiercely contested of 
all Grecian battles was fought, resulting in a victory for 
Epaminondas, which ended the leadership of Sparta. 

137. Four times he invaded the Peloponnesus, where he 
established an Arcadian League to balance the Spartan 
power, and called home the exiled Messenians, who had 
been for three hundred years a banished race, but whom he 
now settled in the homes of their fathers (§ 109). Sparta 
itself, which in all the centuries of its existence had never 
seen an enemy in arms, was threatened by the Thebans, 
but it was saved by the energy of its old king Agesilaus. 
During his fourth invasion of southern Greece, Epami- 
nondas was slain in the fatal batde of Mantinea. With his 
death the Theban power fell, and Athens enjoyed another 
short period of leadership in Greece. 

138. The kingdom of Macedon on the north had now 
become powerful enough to be regarded with fear. The 
Macedonians were barbarians (§ 102), but their kings 
claimed to be descendants of Hercules, and as such had 
been admitted to a share in the Olympic Games. Philip 
II, one of the ablest of these kings, had in his boyhood 
been a hostage at Thebes, where he had learned the art 
of war from Epaminondas. He had, moreover, become 
proficient in the Greek language; while he had acutely 
studied the fatal dissensions among the Greeks, which 
promised a fair field for his talents both as general and 
as orator. 

139. Soon after his return to Macedon and assumption 
of the crown, Athens became weakened by the "Social 



PHILIP'S SUPREMACY. 65 

War," in which many of her late allies and subject states 
turned against her. Philip seized the opportunity to con- 
quer all her dependencies on the Thermaic Gulf. Then, 
availing himself of the Sacred War* to interfere in central 
Greece, he was made a member of the Amphictyonic 
Council (§ 104) and commander of its forces. 

140. Demos'thenes, the great Athenian orator, saw the 
danger and used all his eloquence to avert it. It was in 
vain; gold and persuasion were working secretly for Philip, 
while his arms were advancing in the north; and at length 
the great battle of Chasrone'a, in which his 
army defeated that of Thebes and Athens, ' ^^ 

made all Greece subject to Macedon. The Congress of 
Corinth, the next year, acknowledged Philip's supremacy, 
and appointed him to command the Hellenic forces in a 
war which was now preparing against Persia. But Philip 
was murdered at a feast, and this new enterprise was left 
to the yet greater genius of his son Alexander. 

Point out, on Maps 2 and 3, Marathon, Salamis, Platcea, Eretria, 
Carystus, Thebes, Coroncea, Chreronea, Corcyra, Corinth. The Ther- 
maic Gulf. Macedonia. The Hellespont, Thrace. 

The authorities for this chapter are the same as for the preceding. 



*So called because the Phocians seized the treasures of Apollo's 
temple at Delphi, and the Thebans undertook to punish the sacrilege. 



Hist.- 6. 



CHAPTER IX. 

GREEK LITERATURE, PHILOSOPHY, AND ART. 




IT is time for a brief sketch of those poets, historians, 
and philosophers, to whom — even more than to 
her great generals and statesmen — Greece owes her 
fame; and whose dominion in the minds of civilized men 
has never been shaken, though their native land has for 
ages been trampled by barbarians. 

142. For one practical reason, if for no other, poetry 
must have existed in Greek literature long before prose. 
The art of writing, though very early known to the Greeks, 
was for a long time used almost exclusively for inscriptions 
on bronze or marble tablets in temples and palaces. There 
were no cheap and convenient materials for writing; so that 
a ship-master, whom Homer mentions in the Odyssey, had 
no written list of his cargo, but carried the items in his 
memory. Now a poet might produce his song or epic, 
and retain it, by the help of rhythm, in his memory, until 
others had learned it from his lips (§94); but this would 
be almost impossible in the case of long compositions in 
prose. 

(66) 



HOMER AND I/ESIOD. 67 

143. A better reason is found in the intense love of 
poetry and music, which was universal among the Greeks. 
All their life, public and private,^ in war or peace, was 
associated with song. Hymns to the gods were probably 
their earliest compositions. Triumphal odes welcomed the 
victor at the Games (§102) home to his native city. The 
ten thousand Athenians rushed down from the heights, and 
across the plain of Marathon, singing a battle-hymn, which 
the poet .4[s'chylus, who was one of them, has preserved 
for us. The Greek ships moved into the combat at Salamis 
to a similar strain: "On, sons of the Greeks! Strike for 
the freedom of your country! Strike for the freedom of 
your children and your wives! — for the shrines of your 
fathers' gods and the sepulchers of your sires." 

144. The two great epic (narrative and heroic) poets of 
Hellas were Homer and He'siod. Homer was an Ionian 
of Asia — of what city can not now be known, though 
many contended for the honor of his birth. An English 
poet has written : 

" Seven ancient cities claimed the Homer dead, 
Through which the living Homer begged his bread." 

This may not be literally true, but it is probable that the 
"Father of Poetry" lived a sad and wandering life, shad- 
owed in his old age by blindness. He lived about 850 
B. C. Beside the Iliad, which has been mentioned (§91, 
92), he was the author of the Odyssey, which described the 
adventures of Ulys'ses, king of Ithaca, after the fall of 
Troy. 

145. Hesiod lived about a hundred years later, in Boeotia, 
where he tended his flocks upon the slopes of Mt. Helicon, 
sacred to the Muses. In contrast with Homer, who sang 
the mighty deeds of princes and heroes, he depicted the 
homely, rustic scenes with which he was familiar. His 
chief poem is the "Works and Days," consisting mainly of 
maxims for common life. Beside this is the "Theogony," 



6S THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



which described the origin of the world, and of the gods 
and heroes ; but it is beHeved to have been composed 
by some poet of his school, not by Hesiod himself. The 
poems of Homer and Hesiod constituted the "Bible of 
the Greeks;" for these first put into permanent form the 
beUefs concerning the gods. 

146. Epic poetry naturally flourished most while the 
kings ruled in Greece (§93, loi), for it celebrated the 
doings of gods and heroes, from whom the kings sup- 
posed themselves to be descended. When the common 
people gained power, lyric and dramatic poetry sprang to 
life. The two great lyric poets of Sparta were Tyrtse'us 
and Alc'man; but neither was Spartan-born. The one-was 
Athenian, and the other a Lydian Slave. The story goes, 
that the Spartans, being in great distress during the second 
Messenian war (§ 109), were directed, by the oracle, to 
borrow a leader from Athens. Not daring to disobey 
the priestess, but not wishing to render any real aid, the 
Athenians sent the poor, lame school-master, Tyrtgeus, to 
be the general of their rivals. But Apollo was not to be 
thwarted. The stirring songs of Tyrtceus did more than 
martial feats could have done to reinforce the courage of 
the Spartans; they immediately began to gain victories, 
and the lame school-master became the hero of the war. 

147. Simon'ides lived during the Persian wars, and his 
songs celebrate the heroes who fought and fell at Mara- 
thon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Platsea. Pin'dar was a 
Theban poet, but he studied at Athens, and was honored 
by all the states of Greece. His triumphal odes in honor 
of victors at the Games (^102) are all that have come 
down to us, though he wrote many hymns, dirges, and 
processional songs. 

148. ^schylus was the father of dramatic, as Homer 
was of epic i)oetry. The first tragedies and comedies were 
recited by a chorus alone, and were not really dramas, as 



GREEK POETS AND HISTORIANS. 69 

we understand the term. Both had their origin in tlie 
songs and dances which were part of the festivals of 
Dionysus; and these festivals, which occurred every spring, 
in Athens, continued to be the occasion when new plays 
were produced. So fond were the Athenians of this sort 
of entertainment, that they would sit all day long in the 
theater, while ten or twelve plays were successively per- 
formed. Their theater was open to the sky, and, from the 
hill-side on which it was situated, commanded a magnifi- 
cent view of land and sea. 

149. ^schylus is distinguished by the rugged grandeur 
of his dramas; Soph'ocles, for the exquisite perfection of 
his art; Eurip'ides, for his tender and pathetic pictures of 
e very-day life. These three are confessedly at the head 
of the Athenian tragic drama, and were unsurpassed by 
any ancient poets. Aristoph'anes, on the other hand, was 
the master of comedy. In his fun-producing plays, he 
fearlessly attacked the greatest Athenians of his day — the 
half divine heroes, and even the gods themselves. 

150. If we turn to prose literature, we find that (ireek 
historical writing, like philosophy and poetry (§100, 152), 
had its origin among the lonians of Asia. Hecatae'us, of 
Miletus, was the first prose-writer of note. He traveled 
extensively, and wrote books on history and geography. 
Herod'otus, the "Father of History," was a native of 
Halicarnassus (§101), but he early removed to Samos 
and learned the Ionian dialect. He traveled in many 
lands, and took the greatest pains to ascertain the truth 
of events which he wished to narrate. His theme was the 
great conflict between the Persians and the Greeks; but 
he found occasion for many interesting accounts of other 
nations. There is a story that he recited the whole nine 
books of his history at one of the Olympic Games, and 
that Thucyd'ides, then a boy of thirteen years, hearing him, 
was moved to tears of admiration. The assembly greeted 



70 THE ANCIENT WORLD. ' 

the great work with shouts of deUghted applause, and 
conferred on each book the name of one of the Muses. 

151. Thucydides was the greatest philosophic historian 
among the Greeks; some competent critics declare him 
to be the greatest of any age or nation. He wrote the 
history of the Peloponnesian War (§126) to its twenty-first 
year; and his account of its causes and incidents is our 
best authority concerning the relations of Greek states and 
parties. He was an actor in the events which he describes. 
Xenophon was a pupil of Socrates (§134); he continued 
the history which Thucydides left unfinished, and wrote a 
narrative of the "Retreat of the Ten Thousand" Greeks 
from the mad expedition of Cyrus the Younger (§58). 
He had accompanied the army as a volunteer, but, when 
the Greek generals had been slain, he was chosen one of 
the leaders of the homeward march. His story presents 
a lively picture of the countries through which the route 
lay. Among his other works are a defense of Socrates, 
and a romance, called the Cyropaedia, concerning Cyrus 
the Great. 

152. The "Seven Wise Men of Greece" flourished 
during the sixth century B. C. They were Solon of 
Athens (§112), Tha'les of Miletus, Pit'tacus of Mitylene, 
Perian'der of Corinth, Cleob'ulus of Lindus, Chi'lo of 
Sparta, and Bi'as of Priene. ( Notice that four of the seven 
lived in the Asiatic colonies, §100.) Thales was also 
celebrated as the founder of the earliest school of Greek 
philosophy, called the /^;//r. His most illustrious successor 
m that school was An'axag'oras, the teacher of Pericles, 
Socrates, and Euripides. He, first of the Greeks, believed 
in a creative Mind as the author and ruler of the universe; 
and to this purer faith we may trace the elevation of 
spirit which enabled Pericles to bear serenely the unjust 
reproaches of the mob, and Socrates to look calmly into 
the face of Death (§134). Anaxagoras, like his great 



GREEK PHILOSOrJIERS. 71 

pupil afterward, was tried in the Athenian courts for im- 
piety; but his Hfe was sj^ared on the condition of his 
departure from Athens. 

153. The second school of Greek philosophy took its 
name from Elea, in Italy. Xenoph'anes, the founder of 
the Elcatic school, censured Homer and Hesiod for ascrib- 
ing human passions and weaknesses to the 

gods, and taught that the Creator is one. ' ^'*°" 

Still more important was the Pythagorean school, which 
also had its headquarters in Italy. Pythag'oras, of Samos, 
its founder, had studied not only with earlier Greek phi- 
losophers, but with Egyptian priests (§75), 
and, perhaps, with Babylonian and Hindu 
sages. He made some great discoveries in music and 
mathematics; but his most important work was that of a 
religious teacher. He believed himself inspired of Heaven 
to make known a purer mode of life than was prevalent 
among the Greeks, The last forty years of his life were 
spent at Crotona, in Italy, where he became the head of 
a numerous and powerful society. Its members bound 
themselves, by strict rules, to temperance and self-control, 
and aspired to a serene life, above the dominion of the 
passions. Similar clubs were formed in many cities of 
Italy; and the Pythagoreans numbered many thousands — 
among them some of the best and noblest men in Greece. 

154. The death of Socrates has been mentioned (§134). 
Though one of the wisest of the Greeks, he did not teach 
any system of philosophy, but aimed rather to put his 
disciples in the way of finding the truth for themselves. 
He was unattractive in person, humble and simple in life; 
he received no payment for his teachings, but taught in 
the street or the market-place, wherever any chose to 
listen. The greatest of his disciples was Pla'to, the founder 
of the Academic School, so called because his lectures were 
given in the grove of Academus, near a gate of Athens. 



72 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

We are indebted to Plato for most of what we know of 
Socrates; for a great portion of his writings is made up of 
dialogues, in which Socrates had part. His own philos- 
ophy is the highest and purest of which the ancient world 
could boast. 

155. Aristotle, the tutor of Alexander the Great, was 
the founder of the Peripatetic School of philosophy. His 
lectures, at Athens, drew about him a throng of listeners 
from all the Hellenic cities in Europe and Asia; and he 
discoursed to them while walking up and down in the 
shady groves which surrounded his Lyceum. Aristotle 
was an acute and patient student of physical, as well as 
mental, science. When Alexander, the greatest of his 
pupils, became the master of Asia, he caused rare col- 
lections of animals and plants to be sent from all his 
provinces to his old teacher, who found in them materials 
for his great works on natural history. 

The mental philosophy of Aristotle continued for two 
thousand years predominant in Europe. 

156 In the arts of architecture and sculpture the pre- 
eminence of the Greeks is even more decided than in 
literature. Greek poetry and philosophy have been rivaled, 
and, in some respects, surpassed; but the greatest modern 
sculptor admits the impossibility of attaining that perfection 
of repose and beauty which distinguishes the works of 
Phid'ias and Praxit'eles. The stirring scenes of the Persian 
War aroused all minds to their highest pitch of energy; 
and the seventy years of Athenian supremacy were the 
blossoming time of Hellenic genius. The necessity of 
rebuilding ruined Athens afforded the opportunity which 
Themistocles, Cimon, and Pericles gladly embraced, to 
make their idolized city the glory of all lands. 

157. Then arose the Par'thenon, or temple of Athena, 
the Virgin, which, for exquisite "beauty of proportion, has 
never been surpassed. Then was cast the colossal statue 



GREEK ART. 



73 



of Athena Proma'chos, from the bronze spoils of the 
Persians, which were found upon the field of Marathon. 
Its glittering helmet and spear might be seen far off at 
sea, as if the goddess were keeping perpetual guard over 
the city which bore her name. This was the work of 
Phidias, the greatest of the Greek sculptors, and, therefore, 
the greatest whom the world has yet produced. 

158. Other works of Phidias were the gold and ivory 
statue of Athena, which stood in the Parthenon ; and, most 
admirable of all, the colossal statue of Zeus, in his temple 
at Olympia, in Elis. Though size was the least of its 
merits, we may say that the figure, though sitting, was 
nearly sixty feet in height. The throne and the pedestal 
on which it stood were adorned with elaborate sculptures 
in gold. The figure itself represented jDerfect majesty in 
repose, as if the god were presiding at the games which 
were held in his honor. 

159. As Ionia had her schools of poetry and philosophy 
(§152), so she had her peculiar order of architecture: 
perhaps the most refined and graceful of the three Greek 
orders — equally removed from the simple grandeur of the 
Doric, and the exuberant ornament of the Corinthian. The 
most noted example of the Ionic order was the temple of 
Ar'temis, at Ephesus; of the Doric, the Parthenon, at 
Athens; of the Corinthian, the temple of the Olympian 
Zeus, begun by Pisistratus and his sons, at Athens, but 
completed 650 years after its foundation by a Roman 
emperor. 

The Iliad and Odyssey of Homer have been best translated by 
our countryman W. C. Bryant ; the existing Tragedies of rEschyhis 
and Sophocles, by Prof. Pkimptre ; Herodotus, by Prof. Rawlinson. 
Translations of Thucydides and Xenophon are found in all large 
libraries. Read accounts of the Greek philosophers in Grote, Chapters 
xvi, xxxvii, Ixviii, and in K. O. Miiller's History of the Literature 
of Greece. Find descriptions of Greek Orders of Architecture in 
Fergusson's " Handbook," Book VI, Chapter ii. 
Hist. —7. 



PERIOD IV. — Hellenic Kingdoms in Europe^ Asia, and 

Africa. 



CHAPTER X. 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 




LEXANDER III. of Macedon, though 
only twenty years old when he became 
king, had already proved his extraor- 
dinary genius for war and government. 
A new congress at Corinth conferred 
upon him the same command which his 
father had held (§ 140), and in the 
spring of 334 B. C. he crossed the Hel- 
lespont with a Greek army of 35,000 
men. As before, the perfect training of 
the Greeks more than matched the im- 
mense numbers of the Persians (§§ 115, 
118). At the passage of the Granicus, 
Alexander defeated a superior force 
which opposed him; then, turning southward, he quickly 
made himself master of Asia Minor. Darius III, with half 
a million men, was defeated at Issus, and fled, leaving his 
mother, wife, and children in the hands of the conqueror. 

161. Alexander then purposely left him time to collect 

the whole force of his empire for a decisive combat, while 

he himself turned aside to receive the submission of 

Phoenicia, Palestine, and Egypt, and thus prevent any 

(74) 



Demosthenes. 



BATTLE OF ARE E LA. 75 



attack by sea upon Macedonia or Greece. Kgypt and 
Palestine gladly threw off the Persian yoke; and — though 
Tyre withstood a long and obstinate siege — in less than 
two years, all the Mediterranean coast, as far as Libya, 
was added to the dominion of Alexander. At the western 
mouth of the Nile he built a new city, called from his 
own name Alexandria, which has ever since been an im- 
portant mart of exchange between the East and the West. 

162. At length he marched eastward for the grand 
battle which was to decide the fate of western Asia. 
Darius had mustered and drilled more than a million of 
men, and had carefully chosen a field, near Arbela, which 
gave him all the advantage of this immense number. The 
ground was leveled and hardened, so that his 
scythe-armed chariots might operate with full ' ' ^^^' 
effect. He himself was present in the midst of his men, 
and his example increased their bravery. Nevertheless, 
Alexander and his Macedonian phalanx were again victo- 
rious, and Darius became a fugitive and a captive (§§ 60, 
61). The three Persian capitals, Susa, Persepolis, and 
Babylon, soon submitted to the conqueror. 

163. The young Greek general was now an Oriental 
monarch. His court, composed equally of Asiatics and 
Europeans, was as splendidly ceremonious as that of Xerxes 
himself. He put on all the haughty airs of a Persian 
king. His old comrades were required to prostrate them- 
selves on their faces in approaching his throne; and some 
of his best friends Avere put to death for daring to express 
their opinion of these new pretensions. But if his sudden 
successes were fatal to Alexander's good sense, they did not 
destroy his energy and talents. During the remainder of 
his short life, he reduced all the remaining provinces of 
the Persian empire to his sway. (See §§48, 51.). 

164. He was no brutal conqueror, like those Asiatic 
chiefs (p. 12, note) whose tracks were marked by the ashes 



76 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

of burnt cities and by pyramids of human heads. Wher- 
ever his armies advanced, rivers were cleared for naviga- 
tion; roads were made through tangled forests; new cities 
sprang up; trade revived, or was led into new channels; 
and western thrift took the place of oriental indolence 
and stagnation. Learned men accompanied his fleets and 
armies; and their reports afford our first definite knowledge 
of India. 

165. But while Asia gained, Europe lost in almost equal 
measure. The Greeks, like the Persians before them 
(§ 63), lost their free spirit, and learned the slavish habits 
of courtiers. Art and literature declined as the spirit of 
the people became enslaved. 

The grand result of Alexander's short and brilliant career 
was to diffuse Greek civilization from the Adriatic to the 
borders of India, and from the Crimea to the cataracts of 
the Nile. By giving to all this region one common lan- 
guage for government and literature, Alexander's con- 
quests prepared the way for the more rapid progress of 
Christianity. 

166. Having extended his empire eastward beyond the 
Indus, Alexander was planning the conquest of Italy, 
Carthage, and all the western coasts of the Mediterranean. 
His schemes were, however, broken off by his sudden 
death from a fever, at Babylon. He was 32 years of age, 
and had reigned 12 years and 8 months. 

Trace, on Map i, Alexander's progress from the borders of the 
yEgean Sea to Arbela. Point out the countries and cities which he 
conquered. 

Read the story of Alexander in Felton's Smith's Greece, Ch. 
XLIV. 



CHAPTER XT. 



SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER. 




LEXANDER'S great empire fell 
to pieces shortly after his death, 
and his principal officers fought 
over the division of the spoils. 
After twenty-two years of fierce 
contention, a battle at Ipsiis in 
Phrygia, B. C. 301, finally gave 
Syria and the East to Seleii'cus; 
Egypt to Ptol'emy ; Thrace, with 
part of Asia Minor, to Lysim'- 
achus; Macedonia and Greece 
to Cassan'der. 



168. The Seleucidse.— The 

kingdom of Seleiicus was by far 
the greatest and richest of these 
divisions, and under his energetic 
reign it rapidly became Hdlcnizcd. His capital, Antioch 
on the Orontes, continued for a thousand years to be one 
of the most beautiful and flourishing cities in the world. 
The last survivors of those who had marched and fought 
under Alexander were Seleucus and Lysimachus ; and these 
two made war in their old age against each other. Lysim- 
achus was slain, and his dominions in Asia Minor were 
added to the kingdom of Seleucus; but the latter was soon 
afterward murdered in Europe, where he was still pushing 
his conquests. 

169. The successors of Seleucus were inferior to him in 
character; and two independent kingdoms, Parthia and 
Bactria, sprang up in the north-eastern part of their do- 

(77) 



A Greek Lady. 



78 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

minion. (See map i.) The Bactrians were of the Aryan 
race (§6), and their new kingdom was thoroughly Greek 
in spifit; the Parthians, on the contrary, were nearly re- 
lated to the barbarous Scythians; and their movement for 
indejDendence was a revolt against Hellenic ideas. 

170. Anti'ochus III, the fifth of the Seleucidae, had 
many wars but few successes : nevertheless, his flatterers 
called him "the Great." His reign is marked by the 
first serious collision of the Greek kingdoms with Rome. 
He suffered four signal defeats from the Romans, who took 
from him Asia Minor, except Cilicia, with all his ships and 
elephants, and an enormous treasure. His son, Antiochus 
Epiph'anes, had nearly conquered Egypt, when the Romans 
again interfered and made him resign all that he had taken. 
He obeyed, but revenged himself by plundering and des- 
ecrating the Temple at Jerusalem, B. C. 168. 

171. The Jews sprang to arms, inspired by their brave 
leader Ju'das Maccabae'us. Antiochus, who was now be- 
yond the Euphrates, set out in a great rage to punish 
their revolt; but, in attempting to plunder another temple 
in Elymais, he was seized with a furious madness in which 
he died. Rome took the part of the "Maccabees," and 
Judcea became a separate kingdom. Between the Parthians 
on the east and the Romans on the west, the Seleucidae 
were engaged for a hundred years in constant wars, until, 
in 65, B. C., their whole dominion was absorbed into that 
of Rome. 

172. The Ptolemies. — B. C. 323-30. The Egyptian 
kingdom of Ptolemy was the most brilliant of all the 
Hellenic dominions. Under his thrifty management Egypt 
became a market for the whole world's wealth. Traders, 
scholars, and artists thronged in multitudes to Alexandria, 
which soon rivaled Athens in its beautiful buildings, while it 
surpassed the Attic city by its famous library — the greatest 
in the ancient world. To enrich this collection, Europe 



THE PTOLEMIES. 79 



and Asia were ransacked for literary works, and copies were 
obtained at any cost. A special embassy was sent to Jeru- 
salem to ask of the High Priest a copy of the Hebrew 
Scriptures and the services of a company of learned men 
who could translate them into Greek. These were royally 
received and entertained by Ptolemy, and the version which 
they produced became one of the chief treasures of the 
Alexandrian Library. It is called the Scptiiagint, either be- 
cause the translators were seventy in number, or because it 
was sanctioned by the Sanhedrim, or Council of Seventy, at 
Alexandria. 

173. The first Ptolemy was perhaps the greatest and 
best man among Alexander's generals — distinguished in 
an age of fraud and violence for his truthfulness and self- 
control. None of his descendants equaled him in char- 
acter; but his son, Ptolemy Philadel'phus, continued the 
patronage of learned men with still greater liberality, while 
his wise commercial policy made Egypt the richest country 
in the world. 

174. Ptolemy IH., called Euer'getes, was a great con- 
queror, and extended his kingdom both westward and 
northward along the Mediterranean from Cyrene to the 
Hellespont. He even made conquests east of the Euphra- 
tes, and brought back some old Egyptian images which 
had been carried away by Sargon or Esarhaddon (§§ 13, 
14), but his eastern acquisitions were abandoned almost 
as soon as they were made. The rest of the twelve Ptol- 
emies had hardly any history worth recording. Egypt, 
like all the other Mediterranean countries, became subject 
at last to the Roman power. Cleopa'tra, a brilliant but 
unscrupulous princess, was the last of this royal line ; she 
tried to beguile the Roman generals by her arts, when she 
could not oppose them by arms ; and for some years she 
was successful. But at length An'tony, her lover, was de- 
feated in his contest with Octa'vian, and Cleopatra killed 



8o THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

herself to escape from adorning the triumphal procession 
of his conqueror. Egypt became a Roman province. 

175. The Egyptians, under the Ptolemies, kept their 
own language, religion, and customs, while, as in all the 
other Hellenic kingdoms, Greek was the language of the 
government. Royal and priestly decrees, intended to reach 
all the mixed population of the country, were written in 
three languages: the hieroglyphics, or sacred language of 
the priests, the demotic speech of the common people, and 
Greek. About eighty years ago, a stone, bearing one of 
these threefold inscriptions, was accidentally found by a 
French engineer near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile. 
Learned men, with immense patience, compared the Greek 
sentences, which they could easily read, with the corre- 
sponding characters of the unknown tongues, and thus ob- 
tained a key to the long-sealed writings of the ancient 
Egyptians. The Rosetta Stone contained a decree of the 
priests, ordering divine honors to be paid to the fifth of 
the Ptolemies at his coronation. 

176. Greece, led by Athens, vainly attempted to make 
herself free from Macedon after the death of Alexander. 
The ''Lamian War" ended in only confirming the Mace- 
donian supremacy, while Demosthenes (§ 140) and most of 
his party were condemned to exile or death. In this time 
of calamity, the Greeks learned too late the necessity of a 
closer union of the states. Several federations were formed, 
of which the most important were the Achaean League in 
southern, and the ^tolian in central Greece, But, unhap- 
pily, the several states were still divided by jealousies, 
which gave every advantage to their enemies. Rome and 
Macedon played off one League against the other almost 
at will; while the Romans were steadily advancing toward 
universal dominion. 

177. Philip V, the greatest of the later Macedonian kings, 
was at length so ruinously defeated by them at Cyn'oceph'- 



CONQUEST OF GREECE. 8i 



alas, that he gave up all attempts to control the Greeks, 
having, indeed, more than enough to do in 
keeping a foothold in his own land. Philopce'- '' ' '^^' 
men, the chief of the Ach^an League, was the greatest 
man in Greece at this crisis. He infused his own brave 
and energetic spirit into the whole nation, and enabled it 
for a while to resist the encroachments of Rome. After 
his death, B. C. 183, the Roman power became irresistible. 
Per'seus, the last of the Macedonian kings, was defeated at 
Pydna, B. C. 168, and was afterward carried as a prisoner 
to Italy, where he died in a dungeon near Rome. 

178. A few years later, the remnant of the Achnsans 
made a desperate effort to shake off the Roman yoke. 
One of their leaders was defeated and slain near Ther- 
mopylae; another made a final stand at Corinth, but he, 
too, was defeated and the city was taken, 
plundered, and destroyed. But captive Greece 
ruled her conquerors by her intellectual greatness. Roman 
nobles sought instruction at Athens; and Greek philosophy 
and poetry inspired all that was best in the literature of 
Rome. 

Point out on Maps i, 2, 3, and 4, Antioch, Alexandria, Actium, 
CynocephalDe, Pydna, Corinth, Athens, Thermopylce. 

The latest period in tlie History of Greece may be read in Grote, 
Chs. XCV, XCVI, and in Freeman's History of Federal Government, 
Vol. I. 

Some account of the Seleucid^e will be found in Rawlinson's Sixth 
Monarchy. Their history and that of the Ptolemies may be found in 
Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography. Read also of 
Alexandria and its schools in Smith's Dictionary of Geography. 



PART III. — Rome. 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE ROMAN KINGDOM — ITS RELIGION. 

HE Italian peninsula had now become 

the seat of the most powerful and 

long-enduring government that the 

world has ever known. But, if we 

would trace the stream of conquest to 

its source, we must go back to a little 

village on the Tiber, founded in the 

eighth century before Christ, if common 

report* be true, by a band of shepherds 

and robbers. Southern Italy and Sicily 

were already occupied by many Greek 

cities; while north of the Tiber were 

the Etruscans, a civilized and powerful 

"1 people, whose singular religious customs 

largely affected those of the Romans. 

1 80. The latter belonged to the Latin 

Standard-Bearer. , i r ^i t.. t j 

branch of the Italian race, and soon 
allied themselves with the League of thirty Latin cities, 
between the Liris and the Tiber. They resembled the 
Spartans in their stern and haughty character; and the 
influence of Rome in Latium, as of Sparta in Greece, was 




* For the legendary account of the founding of Rome, see Ancient 
History, pp. 249, 250. ^ 

(82) 



KINGS OF ROME. 83 



always in favor of government by the nobles, against any 
assumption of power by the common people. 

181. Rome was governed by kings for more than two 
centuries after its foundation (B. C. 753-510). Tradition 
names seven monarchs : Rom'idiis, the mythical founder of 
the state, and Nu'ma, of the religion of Rome; Tul'lus 
Hostil'ius and An'cus Mar^tius, who extended its dominion 
by conquests; the first Tar'quin^ who enriched the city by 
many grand and useful works; Ser'vius Tid'lius, who gave 
to every free Roman the right of voting, divided public 
lands among the people, and organized tlie whole state 
into a military system; and Tarqiiin the Frond, who, trying 
to rob the people of their newly found rights, was expelled 
with all his family. 

182. A republic was then established under the "good 
laws" of Ser'vius. Two chief magistrates, afterwards called 
consuls, were elected every year, with full kingly powers. 
They were attended by a guard of twelve lictors, bearing 
fasces, or bundles of rods, as symbols of authority. At the 
end of their year of office, the consuls could be tried and 
punished for any abuse of their power. 

183. In the earliest times, Rome contained only the 
patricians — consisting of 300 families — with their clients 
and slaves. The clients, though free, had no civil rights; 
they were represented in courts of law by the patrician 
whom they chose as their patron — whose lands they culti- 
vated, or whose influence protected their trade. Each 
patrician was proud of the number of clients who assumed 
his family name. The heads of the 300 noble houses 
constituted the Senate, an august assemblage, mostly of 
old men, distinguished by the broad, purple stripe upon 
their mandes, and by their thrones and scepters of ivory. 
The whole body of patricians constituted the Comitia 
Curiata, which confirmed or annulled all laws proposed 
by the magistrates. 



84 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

184. Later, there arose at Rome a new class, called 
plebeians, who were either foreign settlers, or children of 
mixed marriages, or clients whose protecting families had 
become extinct. The patricians were very angry when the 
new Assembly of the Hundreds, formed by the good king, 
Servius TuUius (§181), included even plebeians in the right 
to vote. They believed that patricians alone could ap- 
proach the gods with prayers and sacrifices, and that, 
therefore, it would be an insult to Heaven if a plebeian 
were admitted to any office which must be entered with 
religious rites. • Another point of jealousy was found in 
the division of lands conquered in war. The patricians 
wanted these for the pasturage of their enormous flocks; 
but Servius thought it right to give the plebeians also a 
share. 

185. Every free Roman was a soldier, and was enrolled, 
according to his wealth, in one of five ranks. The richest, 
being able to equip themselves in complete brazen armor, 
fought in front of the army; the rest, according to their 
means and equipment, were placed in successive ranks 
toward the rear. 

186. The Religion of the Romans was less poetical 
than that of the Greeks; but it was bound up with their 
love of home and country, and strongly affected their daily 
Hfe. As Greek monarchs were supposed to be descendants 
of Zeus, so the first Roman king was fabled to be a grand- 
son of Mars, the war-god; and the whole history of this 
martial people justifies the legend. The two chief divinities 
of the Romans were Jii'piter and Mars; and almost all 
their yearly religious festivals were connected either with 
war or tillage. The worship of some of the other divinities 
was borrowed from abroad; e. g. that of Apollo from the 
Greeks, and that of Miner'va from the Etruscans. 

187. But the "household gods" were nearest and dearest 
to every Roman heart. Every house was a temple, and 



KELIGION OF THE ROMANS. 85 

every meal a sacrifice to Ves'ta, the home-goddess. Her 
temple was the hearthstone of the city, where six noble 
maidens guarded the sacred fire by night and day. Over 
the door of every house was a little chaj^el of the Lares, 
or ancestors of the family, to whom the father i)aid his 
devotions whenever he entered. 

188. The Romans, like the Greeks, believed in oracles 
(§99), while from the Etruscans they borrowed rules for the 
interpretation 'of signs in the heavens, of the appearance 
of sacrifices, and of dreams. The Four Sacred Colleges 
were those of the Pontiffs, the Aitgufs, the Heralds, and 
the Keepers of the Sibylline Books. The first regulated 
public worship and kept the calendar; the second con- 
sulted the gods with reference to all public affairs; the 
third guarded the honor of the nation in its dealings 
with foreign powers; the fourth, in times of great public 
calamity, looked into the Sibylline Books, which were 
supposed to prophesy the fate of Rome. 

189. Once in five years, after the taking of the census, 
there was a solemn purification of the city and all the 
people, by means of prayers and sacrifices, to avert the 
anger of the gods. In like manner farmers were supposed 
to purify their fields, and shepherds their flocks; generals 
their armies, and admirals their fleets, to guard against 
disasters which might be visited upon some secret or 
open impiety. 

Name the boundaries of Italy. The tribes who occupied it in the 
early days of Rome. What islands near Italy? 

Read the early history of Rome in Arnold, Niebuhr, or Mommsen. 




CHAPTER XIII. 

XHE ROMAN REPUBLIC — SAMNITE WARS. 

.HE 480 years' history 
of the Roman Re- 
pubUc is a record of 
ahiiost continual wars; 
but there were four dis- 
tinctly marked periods, 
which will help us to un- 
derstand the development 
of this remarkable nation. 

I. Wars for existence, 
and growth of the Re- 
publican Constitution, B. 

c. 510-343- 

II. Wars for possession 
of Italy, B. C. 343-264. 

III. Wars for Foreign Dominion, B. C. 264-133. 

IV. Civil Wars, B. C. 133-30. 

191. Patricians and Plebeians. — In the contests 
with the Latins and Etruscans, which followed the expul- 
sion of the kings (§ 181), a great part of the Roman ter- 
ritory was lost, and the rest was laid waste. The poor 
people, who derived their living from the soil, were in 
great distress, and had to borrow money from the patricians 
at ruinous interest in order to go on with their farming. 
Some even sold themselves as slaves, and others were 
thrown into the dungeons of their creditors. At length, 
tired of a government which cared only for the rich, and 
had neither justice nor pity for the poor, the plebeians 
seceded to the Sacred Mount, and resolved to form a new 

city. 

(86) 



Tribune and Lictor. 



AGRARIAN LAWS. 87 

192. The patricians now consented to cancel the debts 
of all who were unable to pay, and agreed to the yearly 
election of two tribunes^ whose duty it should be to de- 
fend the interests of the plebeians. The next year an 
"Agrarian Law" provided for the distribution of a certain 
part of the public lands among the plebeians, while the 
rents of those leased to patricians were applied to the pay- 
ment of soldiers who had hitherto been compelled to give 
their services to the state. The consul who proposed this 
law was condemned and beheaded at the expiration of his 
term; and the first tribune who attempted to enforce it 
was murdered. But its enemies only defeated themselves, 
for so violent was the popular rage that the next tribune, 
Publirius, was able to obtain a still greater security for the 
rights of the plebeians. This was, the power to elect their 
own officers* in their own Meeting of the Tribes; and 
there, too, to discuss all questions affecting the whole na- 
tion, before they were presented to the Assembly of the 
Hundreds. This prevented the plebeians being outvoted 
by the clients of the noble houses, who of course were 
controlled by their masters. 

193. Some proud patricians, rather than share their 
power with inferiors, went over to the enemies of Rome. 
Among these was Ca'ius Mar'cius — called Co'riola'nus, be- 
cause he had taken the town of Corioli from the Volscians; 
but it was with these same Volscians that he now took 
refuge, and even led their armies against his native city. 
A sacred embassy of priests and augurs went out to meet 
him, but he refused all terms of peace. At last, his 
mother, his wife, and his little children appeared, followed 
by a procession of noble ladies, entreating him to spare 



* " From that time," says a Roman historian, ''the election of 
tribunes and aediles was made withotU birds,'''' alluding to the cere- 
mony of "taking the auguries," which must precede every election 
in which patricians had part. See ^ 184. 



88 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

their altars and their homes. Coriolanus yielded, but with 
the despairing cry: "Mother, thou hast saved Rome, but 
thou hast lost thy son ! " He led away his army. Some 
say the Volscians killed him in their revenge, but others, 
that he lived to great age, lamenting, in the loneliness of 
exile and infirmity, the foolish pride that had robbed him 
of home and honor. 

194. After many years of contention, all classes agreed 
to appoint ten men {Decemviri), who should consider and 
adjust all conflicting claims and make a new constitution 

for Rome. The results of their labor were 
the Laws of the Twelve Tables,* which be- 
came the "source of all public and private right" in Rome 
for a thousand years. They were approved by the Senate, 
and ratified by the Assembly of the Hundreds. But, 
though formally accepted, the laws were not enforced until 
two secessions and many violent tumults, caused by patri- 
cian outrages, had proved the power of the plebeians. 

195. Rome was soon afterward visited by a terrible 
calamity. The Gauls, who had conquered northern Italy, 
came pouring through the defiles of the Apennines, and 
defeated the whole Roman army with great slaughter in 

the battle of the Allia; then, pushing on with 
' ^^°' irresistible fury, captured and burned the city. 
The rocky height of the Capitol was bravely defended for 
several months, and then ransomed for 1000 pounds of 
gold. The Gauls continued for many years to ravage 
Italy, and twice encamped within a few miles of Rome, 
but at last they withdrew to the fertile plain between the 
Alps and the northern Apennines, which was thenceforth 
named from them Cisalpine Gaul. They learned letters 
and civilized habits from the Etruscans, and taught them 
in some degree to their wild kindred among the Alps. 



*So called because they were inscribed on bronze tablets. 



7'HE SAMNITES. 89 



196. The poverty and distress of the plebeians, resulting 
from the ravages of the Gauls, made the patricians only 
more haughty and overbearing. Rome was a, shapeless 
heap of rubbish, through which even the direction of 
former streets could not be traced; while orchards and 
farm-buildings outside the walls had all been burnt. Again 
the dungeons beneath the patrician houses on the hills 
were crowded with insolvent debtors, who cried out against 
the cruelty of their tormentors. 

197. The tribune Licin'ius Sto'lo, and his colleague L. 
Sex'tius, then brought forward a series of laws, which were 
designed to raise the plebeians to absolute equality with the 
patricians in civil rights and the use of the public lands. 
Of course the latter violently opposed the meas- 
ures ; but, after some years, the ' ' Licinian ' " ^ ^* 
Laws" were passed, and Rome had for the first time a 
really popular government. Of the two consuls chosen 
every year, one was henceforth a plebeian. The consuls 
still had unlimited military power; but most of their judicial 
duties were now committed to a prcetor, who for a time 
was chosen only from the patricians. 

198. Wars in Italy. — At peace with herself, Rome 
now looked out upon the broader field where she was to 
become mistress of the world. The Samnites to the south- 
ward were more civilized and powerful than the Latins. 
They had conquered most of the Greek settlements (§88) 
in southern Italy, and had adopted Greek ways of living 
and thinking, so that they were superior in intellectual 
culture to their neighbors, with whom they were now 
to contest the rule of the peninsula. But the Romans 
had already proved that wonderful genius for government 
which afterward enabled them to bind together all their 
conquests into one great empire; while the Samnites had 
only a loose confederation of cities without any recognized 
leader. 

Hist.— 8. 



90 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

igg. All Italy was engaged on one side or the other; 
and the three Samnite Wars lasted, with brief intervals, 
more than half a century (B. C. 343-290). The Latin 
allies, becoming unruly, were reduced to obedience by a 
war, which broke up the League (§ 180) and subjected all 
Latium to Roman law. Two incidents of the 
■ ^^^" Latin war illustrate the Spartan-like sternness 
of the Romans. All soldiers were forbidden to leave the 
camp on pain of death; but Ti'tus Man'lius, the consul's 
son, vexed by the challenge of a Latin warrior, went out 
and killed him, and, returning in triumph, laid the spoils 
at his father's feet. The consul ordered his guards to 
behead the young man before his tent in the presence of 
all the army. 

200. The battle which decided the fate of Latium, took 
place at the foot of Mt. Vesuvius, 339 B. C. The augurs 
had declared (§ 188) that Fate demanded the destruction 
of an army on one side and a general on the other. It 
was therefore agreed by the Roman commanders that, if 
any portion of their army should begin to give way, the 
consul commanding in that quarter would devote himself 
to death for the deliverance of the state. Manlius led 
the Roman right; De'cius, the plebeian consul, the left. 
All fought bravely, but at length the Roman left wavered. 
Decius called the pontiff, and with his aid repeated the 
solemn words in which he devoted himself and the Latin 
army to the gods of death and the grave; then, mounting 
his horse, plunged into the thickest of the fight and was 
almost immediately killed. 

201. B. C. 326-304. The Second Samnite War lasted 
22 years. The Romans suffered a disgraceful defeat at the 
Caudine Forks, where the remnant of their army which 
survived had to ''pass under the yoke," in token of 
submission. A treaty of peace was then made; but the 
Roman Senate refused to be bound by it, and sent the 



THE THIRD SAMNITE WAR. 91 



two consuls and two tribunes who had signed it, bound in 
chains, to suffer the vengeance of the Samnites. Pon'tius, 
the Samnite general, generously released them. After 
many reverses and a few great victories, the Romans 
were at length acknowledged as masters of Italy. 

202. The Samnites, however, made use of the six years' 
interval of peace to enlist all the Italian nations in a new 
league against Rome, and, in 298 B. C, the Third Samnite 
War broke out. Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls, on the 
north, were allied with Lucanians, Apulians, Greeks, and 
Samnites on the south. In a great battle 

at Sentinum, the Gauls and Samnites were ' " ^^^' 

defeated, and 25,000 men were slain. Pontius, the Sam- 
nite general, still defended his country by his brilliant 
genius; but at length the Romans gained a victory, in 
which he was made a prisoner and compelled to walk 
the streets of Rome loaded with chains to adorn the 
triumph of the consul. When the procession reached the 
foot of the Capitoline Hill, he was led aside and be- 
headed in the Mamertine Prison. Samnium was com- 
pletely subjected, and a Roman colony of 20,000 people 
guarded its territory. 

203. Two short wars added to the Roman possessions 
the lands of the ^qui and Sabines, rich in oil, wine, and 
forests of oak. These were divided among the people, 
many of whom had been made poor by the long wars; 
and, by the wise laws of Hortensius, Rome was saved 
from civil strife for 150 years. 

204. The next important contest was with Pyr'rhus, king 
of Epirus, an ambitious and able prince who 

was invited into Italy by a league of many ' ' ^ '"^^ ' 
nations, with the Greek city of Tarentum at their head. 
At Heracle'a, his elephants put the Roman horse to flight; 
and his military genius was proved by many other vic- 
tories. But while Pyrrhus was fighting for glory, Rome 



92 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

was fighting for existence. As often as one army was 
destroyed, another was ready to oppose him; and at 
length he withdrew into Sicily, hoping to recruit his forces 
for a fresh attempt. He was defeated two 
B. c. 275. yQ2.x?, later at Beneventum, and left Italy never 
to return. His allies submitted, and the whole Italian 
peninsula, properly so called, was now subject to Rome. 

205. Her power was secured by many new colonies and 
by military roads, the remains of which may yet be seen. 
The maritime colonies possessed the full "Roman right;" 
/. e., the colonists retained all the powers and privileges 
of Roman citizens. They could go to Rome and vote in 
the assemblies; and they could be elected to any office 
which would have been open to them when living in the 
mother city. The "Latin right" was that which had been 
given to the cities of Latium when they were first made 
subject to Rome. It was bestowed on the less favored 
colonies; but it included commercial and other privileges, 
which bound them to Rome by ties of interest. 

Point out, on Map 5, the nations engaged in the Third Samnite 
War : see \ 202. Point out Sentinum. Tarentum. Beneventum. 
Heraclea. 

Read the story of this period, more fully told, in Arnold's History 
of Rome. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

ROMAN REPUHl.lC, CONTINUED — PUNIC WARS. 




Hannibal Crossing the Alps. 

AVING conquered Italy, Rome was now to 
come into collision with the great Republic 
of Carthage, on the opposite coast of the 
Mediterranean. The island of Sicily was the object of 
dispute. The Romans, like the Spartans, despised com- 
merce, and had few ships, their wars having hitherto been 
upon land; but they prepared, with great spirit, to meet 
Carthage upon her own element. A Carthaginian war- 
vessel, wrecked on their coast, served them for a model; 
in two months they had a fleet of loo ships, and in their 
very first sea-fight gained a decisive victory. A second 

(93) 



94 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

and third were equally successful, and the consuls now- 
invaded Africa, laying waste the rich lands about Carthage 
with fire and sword, B. C. 256. 

207. One half the victorious army returned to Rome 
on the approach of winter, while Reg'ulus, one of the 
consuls, remained, and, for a time, carried all before him. 
Multitudes of towns fell into his power, and Carthage 
itself might have been starved into submission, but for 
the arrival of Xanthip'pus, a Spartan general, and an army 
of Greek hirelings. With this timely aid, the Carthaginians 
were at length able to defeat and capture Regulus. The 

fleet, which was carrying home the shattered 

remnant of the Roman force, was wrecked in 

a storm, and the Sicilian coast was strewn with the remains 

of 260 ships and 100,000 men. Nevertheless, Roman 

courage never wavered, and a few years later, Metel'lus 

gained a brilliant victory over the Carthaginians 

at Panor'mus. A hundred elephants made part 

of the triumphal procession* which attended his return to 

Rome. 

208. The next eight years were full of disasters to Rome; 
but at length her wealthy citizens fitted out a fleet with 
which the consul Luta'tius gained a decisive victory among 
the ^gu'sae. The Carthaginians now agreed to surrender 
Sicily and all the neighboring islands, pay 2000 talents 
($2,500,000), and release all Roman prisoners without 
ransom. The First Punic War had lasted nearly 24 years 
(B. C. 264-241). 

209. In the interval which followed, Rome seized Sar- 
dinia and Corsica, and, by a three years' war, conquered 
Cisalpine Gaul. The latter was planted with Roman colo- 
nies; but the three islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, 



* For description of a Roman triumph, see Manual of Ancient 
History, pp. 291, 292. 



THE PUNIC WARS. 95 



were organized into provinces — the first examples of the 
system of government by which Rome afterward managed 
her immense foreign possessions. The consuls, on com- 
pleting their term of office, divided the provinces between 
them; and each exercised, in his own province, both civil 
and military command. One tenth of the whole produce 
of these countries went as tribute to Rome, beside a duty 
of one-twentieth on all imports and exports. The fertile 
fields of Sicily became the granaries of Rome, while the 
forests of Corsica afforded abundant materials for her 
fleets. 

210. If Carthage had seemed to submit, it was only for 
a time. Her great general, Ham'ilcar, foreseeing a renewal 
of the war, devoted all his energy to the 

conquest of Spain, and, at his death, left 
to his son-in-law, Has'drubal, the task of improving the 
resources of that rich country. Hasdrubal built towns, 
fostered trade and tillage, drilled the natives into soldiers, 
and, by working the newly found silver-mines, laid up an 
ample treasure for the coming war. Han'nibal, son of 
Hamilcar, had meanwhile grown to manhood. When only 
nine years old, he had sworn, at his father's command, 
an oath of eternal hatred to Rome; and a youth spent in 
the Spanish wars had only Strengthened this feeling, while 
it developed and trained his wonderful genius. 

211. Placed at the head of the army, Hannibal first 
made sure of his power over Spain, and then deliberately 
sought a quarrel with Rome, which led to the Second 
Punic War. The Romans expected him to cross the sea 
to the western coast of Italy; but Hannibal surprised 
them by a far bolder movement. Crossing the Ebro and 
the Pyrenees, with an army of 90,000 foot, 12,000 horse, 
and many elephants, he marched through the friendly 
tribes of southern Gaul; climbed the snowy Alps, fighting 
his way against hosts of enemies, as well as the mightier 



96 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

forces of nature; and descended upon the plain of the Po, 
attended by scarcely more than one-fourth of the mighty 
army with which, in the spring of 218 B. C, he had set 
out from Carthagena. 

212. The Cisalpine Gauls hailed him as a deliverer; 
and in three great battles he routed the best and bravest 
of the Roman soldiery. Fa'bius was now made Dictator, 
with unlimited powers. Seeing the impossibility of defeat- 
ing Hannibal in battle, he tried to weary him with harass- 
ing marches, cutting off his stragglers and supply-trains 
while refusing to fight. But the Romans murmured at 
this ''Fabian policy;" and the consuls, listening at length 

to their demands for a battle, led a great army 
to Cannae, only to suffer the most overwhelnixiig 
defeat that Rome ever knew. One consul, 80 senators, 
and nearly 50,000 men lay dead upon the field. All 
southern Italy, except the garrisoned towns, submitted to 
Hannibal. The kings of Macedon and Syracuse allied 
themselves with Carthage, and for fourteen years Hannibal 
maintained his footing in the peninsula. 

213. The two Scip'ios, Cne'ius and Pub'lius, meanwhile 
managed the Roman interests in Spain with great skill, 
and prevented reinforcements from reaching Hannibal. 
When, at last, his brother came to his relief, he was 

defeated and slain near the Metau'rus. Hanni- 
bal held out four years longer in the mountain- 
fastness of Bruttium; but at last the younger Scipio, son 
of Publius, conducted an army into Africa, and the Cartha- 
ginians were compelled to recall their great general. The 
final battle was fought at Za'ma; the power of 
Carthage was overthrown; and, in the peace 
which followed, she was compelled to surrender Spain and 
all her island settlements, with her fleets and elephants, 
and to engage, beside paying a yearly tribute, to make no • 
war without the, permission of Rome. 



MAP No. V. 




// U. Vail. del. 



DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE. 97 

214. Scipio, now called Africa'nus, in honor of his vic- 
tory, was welcomed at Rome with a magnificent triumph 
(§207, note). Rome rewarded her veteran soldiers with the 
confiscated lands of the Italian nations who had aided 
Hannibal; then turned her attention to the East, where 
Antiochus the Great (§170) had welcomed the great 
Carthaginian to his court, and seemed to be challenging 
a contest. The battle of Magnesia, B. C. 190, destroyed 
his hopes, and made the opening scene of Roman conquests 
in Asia. A war with Macedon ended in the captivity of 
the last of her kings (§177), and Rome was now acknowl- 
edged as the leading power in the whole civilized world. 

215. Carthage, her disarmed and humbled victim, was 
only awaiting her doom. Ca'to, the sternest of the Roman 
statesmen, never ended a speech in the Senate without 
the words, "Carthage must be destroyed." To prolong 
their existence, the Carthaginians submitted to the most 
unreasonable demands; but, when ordered to destroy their 
beloved city and remove to a new site away from the 
sea, they refused with one voice. Then began a four-years' 
war, in which the sole operation was the siege and defense 
of Carthage. Night and day every man, woman, and child 
toiled at the defenses of the city. A new fleet was built 
in the blockaded port, and a channel was cut through the 
land to enable it to reach the sea. Two thousand shields 
or weapons were made every day in the arsenal, and the 
women gave their long hair for bowstrings When at last 
the Romans forced an entrance to the city, they had to 
fight their way, house by house and street by street. Fires 
were kindled in all directions; and when, after 17 days, 
the flames were arrested, only heaps of ashes remained of 
the homes of 700,000 human beings. 

216. The lands of Carthage became the Roman "Prov- 
ince of Africa." The same year Corinth, also, was destroyed 
(§178), and Greece became the "Province of Achaia." 

Hist. — 9. 



98 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

War was still going on in Spain, where the town of Nu- 
mantia withstood a long siege with heroic courage. It 
was starved into surrender, 133 B. C; and at length the 
whole peninsula, except the Asturias, submitted, and was 
divided into three provinces. Hither and Farther Spain, 
and Lusitania, now Portugal. All southern Europe, with 
an important part of Africa, was now subject to Rome; 
and in Egypt and Asia Minor many client-states owned 
her power and begged her protection. The relation of 
Rome to Egypt, Pergamus, Judaea, etc., was much like 
that of a proud patrician to his dependents whom he fed 
and domineered over, while permitting no other person to 
injure them. 

Trace, on Map 5, the march of Hannibal from Spain. Point 
out Cannae, the Metaurus, Magnesia, Carthage, Tunis, Panormus 
(now Palermo), Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily. 

Mommsen is the best authority for this and the following periods. 
Arnold's History of Rome was, unhappily, left unfinished in the 
midst of the events described in this chapter. 



CHAPTER XV. 



ROMAN REPUBLIC, CONTINUED — CIVIL WARS. 




Roman Soldier. 



CENTURY of internal conflict ends 
the history of the Roman Republic. 
The strife between patricians and 
plebeians was long ago ended; but in 
its place had arisen a grinding, igno- 
ble jealousy between the rich and the 
poor. Rome was a " commonwealth 
of millionaires and beggars." Many 
rich proprietors held four times the 
amount of public lands to which the 
law entitled them; and, instead of hir- 
ing free labor, preferred to cultivate 
by means of gangs of slaves who could 
be bought cheap after every Roman 
victory. These slaves, often the 
equals of their masters but for misfortune in war, — strong, 
intelligent, and trained to the use of arms — constituted one 
of the greatest dangers to which Rome was now exposed. 

2i8. In the year 133, B. C, Tibe'rius Grac'chus, Tribune 
of the People, brought forward a bill for a re-distribution 
of the state lands, limiting the patricians, as before, to 500 
jtigera (about 312 acres), and dividing the remainder into 
homesteads for the poor. His fellow-tribune, Octa'vius, 
vetoed the bill; but Tiberius moved the people to depose 
him, and the Agrarian Law was passed. Other propositions 
followed, designed to raise up a middle-class of peasants, 
which would prevent collision between the two extremes 
of society. But the wrath of the wealthy class was now 
excited, and Tiberius was murdered on the steps of the 
Capitol. 

(99) 



lOO THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

219. His younger and yet abler brother, Ca'ius Grac'- 
chus, became Tribune of the People, B. C. 124. He 
provided for the hungry crowd by forming new colonies, 
not only in Italy, but beyond the seas, and by building 
immense granaries at Rome, whence the government dealt 
out wheat at less than half price to all who chose to apply 
for it. The first of these measures was wise and benef- 
icent; the second was very dangerous, for it drew into 
Rome a thriftless crowd from all the country, and there 
were never wanting leaders whose wicked ambition made 
use of these people for their own ends — sometimes for the 
destruction of the state. Caius Gracchus lost his life in a 
popular tumult; 250 of his followers fell with him, and 
3000 were strangled in prison by order of the Senate.* 

220. Roman virtue, if not dead, was in a fatal decline. 

A war with Jugur'tha — an African prince, 
° ^°^' who had murdered two heirs to the kingdom 
of Numidia in order to seat himself on its throne — brought 
to light the disgraceful fact that even senators and consuls 
would sell themselves for gold. One general made a dis- 
honorable peace, and another, with his whole army, passed 
under the yoke (§ 201). At this humiliating crisis, when 
neither great wealth nor noble birth escaped reproach 
Caius Ma'rius, a Latin farmer's son, was made consul and 
entrusted with the w^ar in Africa. Among his officers was 
Corne'lius Sul'la, a young patrician, of dissolute character, 



"•■■ The noble character of the Gracchi was due, in great measure, 
to their mother, Cornelia, a daughter of Scipio Africanus. Their 
father died when they were very young, and Cornelia, refusing all 
the lures of ambition — among others a royal crown — devoted her- 
self to the training of her boys. She lived to see both of their 
young lives sacrificed for the good of their country ; and, though 
the Senate forbade her to mourn for them, a grateful people after- 
wards placed upon her tomb the proudest of inscriptions: ^'■Cornelia, 
tJie Mother of the Gracchi, '''' 



MARIUS AND SULLA. loi 

but great ability, to whose tact and bravery the capture of 
Jugurtha was due. That wily prince was starved to death 
in a Roman dungeon, B. C. io6. 

221. Marius, in violation of the law, was reelected to the 
consulship five successive years. Italy was trembling at the 
approach of two great hordes of barbarians from beyond 
the Danube, who had destroyed a Roman army of 80,000 
men at Arausio, on the Rhone, and now threatened the 
peninsula. The Teutones were to enter Italy from Roman 
Gaul, while the Cimbri were to pass through Switzerland 
and descend upon the Lombard plain to the eastward. 
Marius and Sulla hastened to meet them, and 

gained a victory at Aix, which ended in the 
total destruction of the Teutones. The next spring the 
Cimbri were defeated at Vercellae, and 60,000 captives 
were sent to the slave-markets of Rome. 

222. The danger arising from so numerous and warlike 
a slave-class (§ 217) was already felt in Sicily. In the 
First Servile War (B. C. 134-132), 200,000 rebels were 
in arms; and the Second, which broke out B. C. 102, taxed 
for three years the best Roman generals. It was suppressed 
B. C. 99; but the masters did not soon forget their terror. 

223. Another peril threatened Rome from her Italian 
allies, who, disappointed in the hope of full "Roman 
rights," which Caius Gracchus had wished to give them, 
formed a federal Republic by themselves, and defeated sev- 
eral armies which were sent to subdue them. Rome gained 
peace only by yielding to the just demands of the states. 
All the Italians were admitted to full Roman citizenship; 
the "Latin right" (§ 205) being reserved for Spaniards and 
other provincials — and so the "Social War" was ended. 

224. A furious contest, which now arose between Marius 
and Sulla for the command in a war against Pontus, ended 
by making Sulla master of Rome and driving Marius into 



I02 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

exile. But when Sulla had departed for the East, Marius 

returned. By capturing the corn-fleets from Sicily and 

Africa, he starved Rome into surrender, and 

R C 88 

proceeded to massacre all who were opposed to 
him. But he died on the eighteenth day of his seventh 
consulship, and Sulla, returning with his victorious army, 
soon turned the tables. 

225. In five campaigns he had brought the Pontic War 
to a triumphant conclusion, and had recovered the revolted 
provinces of Achaia, Macedonia, and Asia. He came laden 
with treasure and followed by a devotedly attached soldiery, 

with whom he many times defeated the ' ' Mari- 

^' ans " and established a new Reign of Terror at 

Rome. Six thousand soldiers were massacred by his order; 

new "proscription-lists" were published every day, and the 

streets flowed with blood. 

226. Sulla was made Dictator, with unlimited power; 
and he now tried, with some show of reason, to restore at 
once the simple virtues and the patrician rule which had 
belonged to the early days of the Republic. But, though 
aristocratic government was restored for a time, Roman 
virtue was dead ; and Rome, enslaved by luxury, could no 
longer hope to escape an outward servitude, whenever her 
master should appear. At the end of three years, Sulla 
suddenly resigned his power and retired to Puteoli, where 
he died, B. C. 78. 

227. The Romans, though rich and luxurious, were 
hardly less brutal than the wolves whom tradition made 
their foster-brothers. Their favorite sport was to see the 
bravest of their captives fight with wild beasts, or butcher 
each other in the arena, "to make a Roman holiday." 

One of these "gladiators," named Spar'tacus, 

moved his comrades to revolt; they were joined 

by enslaved herdsmen from the mountains, so that their 

number rose, the first year, to 40,000, and the second, to 



VICTORIES OF POMPEY. 103 

100,000 men. For two years they defeated all the armies 
of Rome, and convulsed all Italy with terror ; but jealousy 
divided their forces; Spartacus was defeated and slain by 
Cras'sus, and the remnant of his followers, attempting to 
escape northward, were met and destroyed by Pom'pey. 

228. This general had been a favorite lieutenant of 
Sulla; and he had distinguished himself by conquering the 
remnant of the Marian party in Africa and 

R P fi-r 

Spain. He now received the consulship with 
Crassus. After its expiration he rendered yet more bril- 
liant services by sweeping the Mediterranean of Cilician 
pirates, who were ravaging all its coasts; by ending the 
wars with Pontus and placing that country, as well as 
Bithynia and Syria, under Roman rule. He captured Jeru- 
salem by a three months' siege, B. C. 63, and established 
Hyrca'nus as High Priest and ruler of the people. 

229. Rome, meanwhile, barely escaped ruin from the 
corrupt elements within her borders. Cat'iline, a dissolute 
nobleman, plotted with comrades like himself to murder the 
consuls, overthrow the government, and assume control of 
affairs. Plans were laid with great skill and 

secrecy, and the wicked plot seemed likely to 
succeed; but, happily, it became known in time to Cic'ero, 
the great lawyer and orator, who was then consul, and by 
his prompt measures it was brought to naught. Catiline 
fell, fighting at the head of his legions, and most of his 
accomplices were put to death. Cicero was rewarded by 
the unbounded gratitude of his fellow-citizens, and by the 
title, "Father of his Country." 

230. Pompey might now have been master of the Roman 
world; but, to avoid exciting alarm, he disbanded his army 
as soon as he set foot in Italy, and journeyed privately to 
Rome. In the triumph (§ 207, note) decreed him by the 
Senate, he was declared to have conquered 22 kings and 
12,000,000 of people, and to have almost doubled the rev- 



I04 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

enues of Rome. Nevertheless, the aristocracy, who had 
opposed his appointment in Asia, now refused to ratify his 
acts, or to give lands to his veteran soldiers. Pompey, 
though by birth and taste an aristocrat, had to ally himself 
with Ju'lius Cse'sar, the rising leader of the Marian party, 
in order to fulfill his pledges to his troops. 

231. Crassus, on account of his great wealth, was ad- 
mitted as a partner in their plans; and the three formed 

the First Triiinivirate, which for several years 
ruled the Roman world. It was not a magis- 
tracy, but a private agreement — what, in modern times, 
would be called a "Ring." Caesar was made consul, and, 
by dividing the rich Campanian fields among the poorer 
citizens, satisfied the claims of Pompey's veterans. At the 
end of his term he chose the government of Gaul (§ 216) 
— the poorest and most turbulent of all the provinces. 

232. Pompey and Crassus became consuls. When their 
year was out, Pompey went to Spain, and Crassus under- 
took a war with Parthia — now a vast empire reaching 
westward to the Euphrates — in the hope of increasing 
his wealth by the plunder of the Asiatic cities. But he 
suffered an overwhelming defeat near Car'rhae, and was 
treacherously murdered by a Parthian officer, B. C. 53. 

233. By swiftness, energy, and good management, Caesar 
subdued the Gauls in eight campaigns, beside invading 
Britain and Germany. In choosing the most difficult of the 
provincial governments, he had especially wished to train 
an army which would enable him to carry forward the great 
scheme which he was maturing. He perceived that the 
mere city-government which had sufficed for Rome in her 
poorer days, was unfit for the almost world-wide dominion 
which she had now attained. He wished to civilize western 
Europe, give equal rights of Roman citizenship to all the 
provinces, and make one compact Empire out of so many 
scattered nationalities. 



C^SAR DICTATOR. 105 

234. Pompey's friendship was now turned into jealousy 
and hatred, and with many powerful men at Rome he 
was plotting Cassar's destruction. The Senate ordered the 
whole army in Gaul to be disbanded on a certain day. 
Csesar's resolution was quickly taken. Crossing 

the little river Ru'bicon, which separated his ' ' '*^' 

province from Italy, he marched with his devoted legions 
upon Rome. Pompey retired into Greece; and the nobles 
following him organized a new Senate at Thessalonica. 

235. Pompey was master of Spain, Africa, and the East- 
ern provinces, while Caesar had only Italy, Illyricum, and 
Gaul; but the wonderful energy of the latter turned the 
balance in his favor. His able policy soon restored order 
and confidence in Italy; then, by a toilsome but decisive 
campaign of forty days, he conquered the Pompeian party 
in Spain; and, returning to Rome only long enough to be 
elected consul and pass some laws giving relief to debtors 
and proscribed persons, he pressed on into Greece, where 
the great decisive combat took place at Pharsalia in Thes- 
saly. Pompey was defeated, and, fleeing into Egypt, was 
murdered by an officer of Ptolemy, B. C. 48. 

236. His party rallied in great force in the province of 
Africa, but Caesar defeated them at Thapsus, where 50,000 
Pompeians were left dead upon the field. Caesar 

was now the acknowledged head of the Roman 
world. The Senate declared him Dictator and Imperator* 
for life, with liberty to name his successor. His statues 
were placed in the temples, and his name was invoked in 
legal oaths like that of a god. Caesar used his power in a 
way that proved his genius to be even greater for govern- 



* This title had often been given by acclamation to successful 
generals ; it now acquired a special meaning equivalent to the mod- 
ern Emperor. Ccesar's name has also given to three great empires 
their title for the highest dignitary : Kaiser and Czar. 



lo6 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

ment than for war. Instead of the proscriptions and mas- 
sacres which had followed the return of Marius and Sulla 
(§§224, 225), amnesty to all was his policy. He seemed 
to have forgotten the injuries which he had personally 
received, and sought out men of merit in all parties to aid 
him in the restoration of order and prosperity. 

237. He reformed the calendar, which had fallen into 
great confusion, and with such wisdom that it has needed 
only one slight amendment from his time to our own. He 
planned great works of public utility for Rome, while he 
equally studied the interests of every part of his vast em- 
pire. He rebuilt the cities of Corinth and Carthage, and 
founded many new colonies in Europe, Asia, and Africa, 
giving to all the people as nearly as possible the same 
privileges as to those of Italy. Yet all these works and 
many more were accomplished in the intervals of seven 
toilsome campaigns, which he conducted between his cross- 
ing the Rubicon and his death — a period of little more 
than five years. 

238. Caesar still had bitter enemies, and they were joined 
by a i^\\ honest Republicans, who believed that the one- 
man power had destroyed Roman freedom. On the eve 
of his departure for Asia — where he meant to punish the 

Parthians for the fate of Crassus (§ 232) — 
Caesar was murdered in the Senate House. 
But though the Dictator was dead, the Romans were not 
free. It was easier to destroy one man's life than to 
restore to the nation the strong and simple character 
which had been the true foundation of the Republic. 
The conquests in the East had brought to Italy a crowd 
of Asiatics, who lowered the tone of Roman society; 
and, ever since ease and wealth had been regarded by 
the people at large as of more value than honesty and 
freedom, the Republic had been doomed. A new Tri- 
lunvirate (§ 231), composed of Mark An'tony, Lep'idus, 



DEFEAT OF ANTONY. 107 

and Caesar Octavia'nus — nephew and heir of the great 
Dictator — soon divided the world between them. A pro- 
scription followed, in which 2,000 knights and 300 sena- 
tors — among the latter, Cicero, the Father of his Country 
— lost their lives. The last of Caesar's murderers were 
defeated at Philippi, 42 B. C, and ended their lives by 
suicide. 

239. The Triumvirate was soon broken by the defection 
of Lepidus, and a quarrel between Antony and Octavian. 
Antony was enslaved by the arts of the Egyptian queen, 
Cleopatra (§ 174), on whom he bestowed Syrian territories 
which belonged to Rome, and for whose sake he forgot 
both duty and honor. In a great battle off 
Actium, he was deserted by many of his ' ' ^'' 

officers, and fled to Egypt, leaving the victory to Octa- 
vian. The next year he was again defeated at Alexandria, 
and in despair put an end to his own life. Cleopatra 
followed his example. Egypt was made a province of 
Rome, and the younger Caesar was now lord of the world. 

Point out, on Map 5, the provinces of Ccesar and of Pompey 
before the battle of Pharsalia, § 235. The site of Crassus' defeat, 
§ 232. — Pharsalia, Thapsus, Philippi, Actium, Gaul, Britain, Germany, 
Numidia, the Danube, the Rhone, Arausio, Aquae Sextise (Aix), 
Vercellae, Puteoli, Thessalonica. 

Read Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire, For- 
syth's Life of Cicero, Coesar's Commentaries, and Mommsen's History 
of Rome, Vol. IV. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 



'Al'-ViTxEC 




ArJu^li 







T 



II. 

III. 

IV. 



Gladiatorial Combats. 



HE history of Imperial Rome will be best under- 
stood if divided into four periods: 

I. Nominal Power of the Senate. B. 
A. D. 192. 
Tyranny of the Soldiers. A. D. 193-284. 
Absolute Imperialism. A. D. 284-395. 
Eastern and Western Empires Divided. 



C. 3 



A. D. 



395-476. 

241. C^sar Octavianus is best known to history by his 
new title, Augus'tus. He carefully avoided all kingly 
show and parade, though he exercised more than kingly 
power : living in his private house on the Palatine hill, 
and walking the streets unattended, like any other citizen. 
The forms of the republic were still kept up. The people 
elected consuls, tribunes, etc., every year, but they always 
chose the persons proposed by Augustus; and at length 
these offices were, one by one, granted to him for life. 
The multitude were kept in good humor by a continual 
succession of games, and by liberal supplies of corn, wine, 
and oil, dealt out by the Imperator. The Senate passed 
all the laws which he introduced, and was treated in return 
with perfect respect. 
(108) 



\ 

BIRTH OF CHRIST. 109 

242. Augustus boasted that he "found Rome of brick, 
and left it of marble." Commerce and all the industries 
flourished; the peace of the city was never broken during 
his reign; and so many great writers enjoyed his protec- 
tion, that the brightest period of every nation's literature is 
called, in allusion to them, its "Augustan Age." Among 
them were Vir'gil, Hor'ace, Ov'id, and other poets, and. 
Liv'y, the first Roman historian. 

243. But the chief distinction of the age was little 
dreamed of by the brilliant circles at Rome. In the 
twenty-seventh year of Octavian's reign, the long promised 
Messi'ah was born at Bethlehem, in Judaea. Over His 
cross, thirty-six years later, men read the announcement, 
"This is the King of the Jews," written in JIcb?'€W, and 
Greek, and Latin: perhaps a hint of what was meant by 
the "fullness of times," when the three highest human 
types, thus far, had reached their perfection in Hebrew 
religion, Greek intelligence, and Roman law; and the 
world was waiting for the spiritual kingdom which was to 
outlast the glories of imperial Rome. 

244. The Roman Empire now embraced the whole Med- 
iterranean, with its coasts and islands, from Sahara to 
the Rhine, Danube, and Euxine, and from the Atlantic to 
the Euphrates. Its 27 provinces were divided by Augustus 
between himself and the Senate. Those which were 
securely at peace were called Senatorial Provinces, and 
governed by proconsuls; those which needed the presence 
of an army were Imperial Provinces, managed by the 
emperor or his legates. The standing army, which kept 
this vast dominion in awe, consisted of 25 legions; each 
legion, in horse, foot, and artillery, numbered nearly 7,000 
men. Beside these, the provinces furnished an equal 
number of auxiliary troops, so that the emperor had at 
his command not fewer than 350,000 soldiers. These do 
not include the "City Cohorts," an armed police, who 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



kept order in Rome, nor the 10,000 Praetorian Guards, 
who protected the person of the emperor. 

245. The only miHtary disaster of Augustus' reign was 
the destruction of three legions in Germany, putting an 

end to Roman conquests north of the Rhine. 
' ^ The victor was Her'man — the Romans called 

him Armin'ius — the first great champion of German inde- 
pendence. Modern Germany has lately honored him by a 
colossal statue on the site of his great victory. 

246. Augustus died, A. D. 14, and the Senate conferred 
his titles upon his adopted son, Tibe'rius, The army would 
gladly have crowned German'icus, its favorite general, the 
nephew and adopted son of Tiberius, but Germanicus re- 
fused the honor. The new emperor never forgave him 
for being more beloved than himself: he recalled him 
from Germany, when he was on the point of reconquering 
it, and sent him to the East, where he was probably poi- 
soned by order of the emperor. Tiberius was suspicious 
of all abler and better men than himself; but as he could 
not govern alone, he raised a low-lived man named Seja'nus 
to the post of praetorian praefect, and committed the empire 
to his disposal. 

247. The new laws of Tiberius destroyed the last remains 
of popular government in Rome. He assumed the right to 
put any person to death without trial; and placed on the 
list of capital crimes words or even thoughts unfavorable 
to himself. At length he detected Sejanus in a plot against 
his life, and, with the just execution of that minister, he 
lost the only man whom he ever trusted. Thenceforth the 
best and noblest persons in Rome fell victims of his jeal- 
ousy; and the world breathed more freely when it heard 
of the sudden death of Tiberius, A. D. 37. 

248. Army and people gladly united in putting the purple 
robe upon Caius Caesar, the only surviving son of Ger- 
manicus; In his childhood he had been the pet of his 



THE LAST OF THE CALSARS. Ill 

father's soldiers, and, from the little military boots which 
he wore to please them, he acquired the nickname Calig'ula, 
which has always clung to him. He began well, but, soon 
spoiled by too much power and wealth, he became the 
maddest of tyrants. He demanded to be worshiped as a 
god; he rejoiced in the death-agonies of victims slain for 
his amusement, and wished that all the Roman people had 
only one head, that he might chop it off at a single blow ! 

249. After four years, Caius was murdered by his guards, 
and his uncle Clau'dius, a weak old man, became emperor. 
His reign is chiefly marked by the evil deeds 

of his wives, Mes'sali'na and Ag'rippi'na. The 
latter persuaded him to disinherit his own son, and name 
hers by a former marriage as his heir; then poisoned him, 
to make way for the accession of Ne'ro. 

250. Nero's tutor was Sen'eca, a wise and upright phi- 
losopher; but as soon as the new Caesar was old enough 
to assume power for himself, he proved a wicked tyrant. 
He murdered his mother, his wife, and the best of his 
ministers and generals. He is said to have ordered the 
kindling of a fire which destroyed two thirds of 

Rome; but he charged it upon the Christians, 
multitudes of whom were burnt to death as a punishment. 
To do him justice, he rebuilt Rome on a greatly improved 
plan, both for health and safety. Instead of narrow, 
crooked streets, there were ample thoroughfares; and every 
house had an abundant supply of water. 

251. At length Roman patience was exhausted by the 
vanity and tyranny of Nero ; and Galba was chosen to 
succeed him. Knowing that resistance would 

be vain, Nero killed himself, and with him 
ended the descendants — even by adoption — of the great 
Julius, though the names of Ccesar and Augustus were 
retained as titles by all succeeding emperors. After three 
short reigns, each ended by violence, the general, Vespa'- 



112 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

sian, assumed the purple robe of Augustus, and soon 
restored order and prosperity to the Empire. Rome was 
adorned by the Colise'um and the Temple of Peace; 
Britain submitted to Roman rule; and the Jewish War of 
Independence was ended by the capture and destruction 
of Jerusalem. 

252. Vespasian was succeeded by his son Ti'tus, the 
conqueror of Jerusalem. He was a brave and able soldier; 
but his earlier years had been so stained by cruelty and 
excesses that the people feared they were to have another 
Nero for their ruler. On the death of his father, how- 
ever, Titus sent away all his bad associates, and set him- 
self diligently to the duties of his high place. During his 
short reign of little more than two years, he did all that 
wise liberality could do to repair the calamities of fire, pes- 
tilence, and earthquake, which afflicted Rome. 
It was at this time that Herculaneum and Pom- 
peii, beautiful Campanian towns, were suddenly destroyed 
by an eruption of Vesuvius. Domi'tian, a brother of Titus, 
was the next emperor. He proved himself a morose and 
cruel tyrant, and was murdered by his guards, A. D. 96. 

253. Five good emperors, — NerVa, Tra'jan, Ha'drian, 
and the two An'tonines, — followed in turn. Trajan (A. D. 
98-117) was not only a great general, but a wise, just, 
and painstaking ruler. He carefully studied all causes 
which were brought before him; wrote letters to the pro- 
vincial governors to aid them in difficult cases; lightened 
the taxes, and yet managed so well as to have means for 
many useful works. The emperors had hitherto respected 
the dying advice of Augustus, to regard the Rhine, the 
Danube, and the Euphrates (§244) as the limits of their 
dominion. Trajan, however, conquered Dacia, Armenia, 
Assyria, and Mesopotamia. The first continued to be a 
Roman province, guarded by colonies and forts; but the 
Asiatic conquests were surrendered by Hadrian. 



MAP No. VI. 




(Copyri^/tt, 1S77, by 




verp, Mrui'ff gr Co.) 



JI. Chandler, le. 



REIGN OF MARCUS AURELIUS. 1 13 

254. During a peaceful reign of 20 years, Hadrian vis- 
ited every part of his great empire, which is said to have 
been better governed at this period than ever before or 
since. Peace and prosperity continued, how- 
ever, during the 23 years which followed, un- . 13 i i- 
der T. Aure'lius Antoni'nus, the first emperor who especially 
protected the Christians. Mar'cus Aure'lius, the adopted 
son and successor of Antoninus, was one of the best char- 
acters whom History has portrayed; but his reign was 
marked by many calamities. Parthians on the East, and 
Germans on the West, overran the Empire, while 43 years 
of peace had unfitted the legions for the toils of war. 
The only exception to the justice and gentleness of the 
emperor was his persecution of the Christians. This was 
owing to the bigoted Stoics who were his chief advisers, 
and who could not bear to see their boasted virtues sur- 
passed by even the humblest disciples of Christ. The 
venerable bishop, Pol'ycarp, a friend and disciple of St. 
John, suffered a martyr's death at Smyrna, A. D. 167; 
and ten years later the churches of Vienne and Lyons, 
in France, were subjected to frightful massacres. Aurelius 
labored unceasingly, and often with success, to repel the 
invaders of his empire, and it was during a war with 
a German tribe that he died at Vienna, on the Danube, 
A. D. 180. 

255. His only son, Commo'dus, was already associate- 
emperor, at the age of 17. He was one of the worst of 
the tyrants; and, under his weak and dissolute reign, the 
very foundations of order and peace seemed broken up. 
Soldiers obeyed no one, but plundered and ravaged Roman 
territories at their pleasure, while citizens lived in lazy 
luxury, unmindful of the poverty which was creeping over 
the world. 

Trace, upon Map 5, the boundaries of the Roman Empire under 
Augustus. Under Trajan. Read Merivale and Josephus. 
Hist. — 10. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

ROMAN EMPIRE, — CONTINUED. 




HERE followed a dis- 
graceful time when the 
Praetorian Guards set 
up and put down em- 
perors at their will, 
even once selling the crown 
at public auction ! The le- 
gions on the borders (§ 244) 
thought they had a still better 
right to dictate; and three 
rival generals were at once 
proposed as masters of the 
Roman world. Septim'ius 
Seve'rus was the successful 
— candidate; and he proved one 

Roman Lady and Servant. of ^^e ablest of the emperorS. 

In a war with the Parthians, he took their capital, Ctes'- 
iphon, by storm, and added, not only Mesopotamia, but 
a large tract east of the Tigris, to the dominions of 
Rome. He replaced the old Praetorians with 40,000 
troops chosen from the legions, and made their chief, 
the praetorian praefect, the most powerful perso-n in the 
world, next to the emperor. Severus made war, in per- 
son, against the Caledonians, in the north-western ex- 
tremity of his empire, and died at York, the Roman 
capital of Britain, A. D. 211. 

257. His two sons reigned together for a year, but 
Car'acaria, the elder, then murdered his brother, and, 
("4) 



ALEXANDER SEVER US. 115 

goaded by a guilty conscience, made the whole world 
suffer five years from his agonies of remorse. He put 
to death 20,000 persons on the pretext that they were his 
brother ^'Ge'ta's friends." The only good act recorded 
of this wretched prince is the gift of full Roman citizen- 
ship to all the inhabitants of the Empire. Very likely this 
was done only to simplify his tax-rolls; but it had the im- 
portant effect of making the protection of Roman law the 
equal right of every person. 

258. Macri'nus, the murderer and successor of Caracalla, 
was himself defeated and slain by the armies of Elagab'alus, 
a Syrian boy of fourteen years, whom the armies in the 
East had been bribed to acknowledge as their emperor. 
In his infancy he had been made a priest of the Sun; 
and the worship of Baal was now placed at Rome above 
that of Jupiter himself. Old Roman worship, however 
mistaken in its objects, had at least been decorous and 
solemn. Elagabalus added to the disgust inspired by his 
gluttony and drunkenness, by profaning every thing that 
the Romans held sacred. At last he was murdered by 
the praetorians, A. D. 222. 

259. His cousin, Alexander Severus, a very different 
character, was gladly acknowledged by both army and 
Senate as their chief. His blameless life and noble aims 
promised happiness to the Empire. Good men were called 
to the highest offices, the public money was honestly spent, 
and the Senate was respected as in the days of Augustus. 
A great revolution had taken place in Asia. The Parthian 
Empire (§§169, 232) was now overthrown by the new 
Persian monarchy of the Sassan'idse, who aimed to govern 
all the provinces of Darius the Great (§ 51). Alexander 
met the new Artaxerxes and defeated him on a plain 
east of the Euphrates. Then, returning to the West, he 
set out for a campaign in Germany, but was slain in a 
mutiny of his troops, A. D. 235. 



Il6 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

260. It is needless to name all the puppet-chiefs who 
were set up in turn by the soldiers — now a Thracian 
peasant, now an African proconsul, now a child of twelve 
years — each one sure to be deposed and slain as soon as 
the whim or resentment of his masters called for a change. 

Under De'cius, the second great persecution 
■ ^'*^"^^'' of Christians took place ; and the bishops of 
Rome, Antioch, and Jerusalem were among the martyrs. 
Decius fell in battle with the Goths — one of the most 
powerful German tribes — who were ravaging the country 
south of the Danube. 

261. Vale'rian (A. D. 254-260), the bravest and ablest 
of this series of emperors, had to struggle against count- 
less hordes of barbarians from the north, and against 
the rising power of Persia in the east (§258). At last 
he was made prisoner by Sa'por, the Persian king, in a 
great battle near the Euphrates, and spent the rest of 
his days in a cruel captivity at the Persian court. Various 
fragments of the Roman Empire set up independent gov- 
ernments under many chiefs, known in general as the 
"Thirty Tyrants." 

262. Aurelian (A. D. 270-275) reunited the Roman 
dominions, defeated the pretenders to sovereignty within, 
and the hostile barbarians beyond, its limits; and ex- 
tended one victorious empire again from the Atlantic to 
the Euphrates. Several of his successors were wise and 
good men; but their reigns were short and usually ended 
by violence, until the dangerous power of the legions was 
overthrown by Diocle'tian, A. D. 284. 

263. Period III. Perceiving that the Roman dominion 
was too large to be well governed by a single sovereign, 
Diocletian shared his title of Augustus with his friend Max- 
im'ian. A few years later each emperor adopted a son 
and successor, who bore the title of Caesar during his 
adoptive father's lifetime, and was especially charged with 



PERSECUTION OF THE CJIRISTTANS. 117 

the defense of the frontiers. Ahuost every province needed 
the presence of a great army, so fierce and constant were 
the attacks of barbarians. Diocletian had his capital at 
Nicomedia, in Asia Minor; Maximian, his at Milan, in 
northern Italy; while the Caesar Constan'tius fixed his 
head-quarters at York (§ 256), and the Caesar Gale'rius at 
Sirmium, on the Danube. 

264. The succession being thus regularly provided for, 
the soldiers lost their power of dictating the choice of new 
emperors. The removal of the government from Rome, 
destroyed the influence of the Senate. The emperor's 
edict had all the force of law ; and instead of veiling his 
power under simple, citizen-like manners, he now assumed 
the state of an eastern monarch, and could only be ap- 
proached with ceremonies of reverence. 

265. The religion taught by Christ and His Apostles 
had now reached every portion of the Empire ; and, in 
those times of ruin and corruption, Christians were known 
as the most orderly, industrious, and worthy members of 
any community. Nevertheless, for their refusal to worship 
the emperor's image, they were subjected to a horrible 
persecution. In 303, A. D., Diocletian published an edict 
ordering the destruction of all their churches and sacred 
books, and the death of all persons who presumed to hold 
secret meetings for worship. The passions of envy and 
hatred were let loose, and every soil was wet with innocent 
blood. 

266. In 305, A. D., Diocletian, weary of power, laid 
aside his crown, and compelled Maximian to do the same. 
Some years of contention followed, during which the Roman 
world had at one time six masters, then four, then two, 
and finally only one, who was Con'stantine', son of Con- 
stantius. This great general had always esteemed the 
virtues and protected the lives of the Christians so far as 
he was able, even in times of persecution. He was now 



Il8 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 

to do more. On his march into Italy it is said that he saw 
a flaming cross in the heavens, with the inscription : By 
this, conquer! He adopted the emblem as his standard, 
and soon gained two victories over Maxentius, 
■ ^'^' son of Maximian, which gave him the posses- 
sion of Rome and all Italy. 

267. As soon as his power was established in the East, 
Constantine issued a circular-letter to all his subjects, ad- 
vising them to follow his example and become Christians. 
Though pagans were allowed the free exercise of their 
religion, Christianity became, in an important sense, the 
religion of the Empire. The first general Council of 
Christian bishops was convened by Constantine at Nice, 
in Bithynia, A. D. 325. 

268. On the ruins of old Byzantium, Constantine built a 
new capital of the world, which he called New Rome, but 
which bears in history his own name — Constantinople, 
the city of Constantine. The last trace of the republican 
forms, so carefully cherished by Augustus, had now van- 
ished; and Constantine's court was a gorgeous assemblage 
of officials, whose ceremonious behavior rivaled the homage 
paid to Xerxes or Darius. He created three new ranks 
of nobles throughout the Empire, to whom the nobility 
of modern Europe may trace their titles. 

269. A standing army of 645,000 men was now con- 
stantly maintained (see § 244) ; but, as Roman citizens were 
no longer of the same stuff with the followers of Decius 
and Fabius, great numbers of barbarians were received into 
the pay of the emperor. Nothing could so have shown 
the weakness of Rome as thus to arm her late enemies and 
future conquerors. Beside multitudes of Franks in the 
imperial armies, 300,000 Sarmatians were received as vas- 
sals of the Empire, and settled in Pannonia, Thrace, 
Macedonia, and Italy. • 



JULIAN THE APOSTATE. 119 

270. Upon the death of Constantine, A. D. 337, his 
three sons divided the empire between them and put to 
death all their relatives, excepting two cousins. Within 
a few years, Con'stans and Constantine II. 

were slain in war, and Constan'tius II., the " ^^°' 

surviving brother, reigned over the whole Roman world. 
He had a long and calamitous war with the Persians, 
who defeated the Roman armies in nine pitched battles, 
and extended their raids westward to the Mediterranean. 

271. His cousin Ju'lian was, meanwhile, commanding, 
with great ability, near the Rhine, where he gained im- 
portant victories over the Germans. Constantius, jealous 
of his fame, ordered the greater part of Julian's army to 
the East. The soldiers in Gaul mutinied at this unjust 
command, and proclaimed their beloved general Emperor. 
The Senates of Athens and Rome confirmed their choice. 
Before the two cousins could meet in arms, Constantius 
died, A. D. 361, and Julian was every-where received 
with joyful acclamations. 

272. He reduced the luxury of the court, and declared 
himself the "Servant of the Republic." But Julian was a 
pagan, chiefly, perhaps, because the kinsmen who had 
murdered all his family, called themselves Christians. He 
publicly renounced Christianity, placing himself and his 
dominions under the protection of the "immortal gods." 
After sixteen months' reign he died in war with the Per- 
sians, and his successor, Jovian, restored Christian worship 
and universal tolerance, A. D. 363. 

Trace, upon Map 5, the wars of Septimius Severus. Point out the 
four capitals of Diocletian's empire. The new capital of Constantine. 

Gibbon's "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- 
pire" is the great authority from the time of the Antonines. For 
a very interesting account of the Nicene Council, read Stanley's 
"Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church." 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



THE NORTHERN BARBARIANS. 



D 



URING these last years 
of the Roman Empire 
in the West, the main 
interest centers upon the 
swarms of free warriors who 
were pressing down upon it 
from the plains of central and 
northern Europe. Though 
rude in their ways of living, 
these people — with the ex- 
ception of one tribe, soon to 
be mentioned — belonged to 
the same Indo-Germanic race 
(§ 6) with the Greeks and 
Romans; they had much of 
the same capacity for art, 
science, literature, and gov- 
Captives in War. emment ; and they were able 

to appreciate and admire in the Roman cities the proofs 
of a civilization far beyond what they had yet been able to 
create. One of their great chiefs declared that he would 
rather renew and perpetuate the fame of Rome by Gothic 
strength, than found a new Gothic Empire of which he 
himself should be the Caesar Augustus. 

274. With such feelings many Germans had enlisted in 
the Roman armies, even in the first days of the Empire; 
and, after the time of Constantine, the ''barbarians" con- 
stituted the great body of the legions. These gigantic 
warriors were far braver and hardier than the people of 
(120) 




THE GOTHS AND THE HUNS. I2I 



the south ; and their virtues often put Romans to shame. 
As soldiers they were faithful to the emperors who em- 
ployed them ; but this did not prevent their free country- 
men from being the terror of the declining Empire. The 
principal German tribes were the Goths, Franks, Alemanni, 
Saxons, and Burgundians. 

275. As early as the reign of Valerian (§ 261), the 
Franks and Alemanni had overrun Gaul, Italy, and Spain, 
and had crossed the straits into Africa. The Goths had 
built fleets from the woods near the Danube, with which 
they sailed along the coasts of Asia Minor and Greece, 
plundering and burning many cities, among others Ephesus, 
Corinth, and Athens. Western Europe was, meanwhile, 
afflicted by swarms of Saxon pirates, while Roman Britain 
was ravaged by the Picts and Scots. The emperor Val- 
entin'ian — the successor of Jovian — and his great general, 
Theodo'sius, gained important victories over the western 
marauders. 

276. The Gothic kingdom of Her'manric now extended 
from the Danube and Euxine to the Baltic; but, under the 
reigns of Valentinian in the west, and his brother Va'lens 
in the east, the Huns, a new race of savages — 

more fierce, hideous, and terrible than had yet 
been seen — appeared from Asia and conquered the Ostro- 
goths, north of the Black Sea. Their brethren, the Western 
Goths, or Visigoths, begged the protection of the Roman 
emperor in the East. Valens gave them lands; and a 
million of men, women, and children crossed the Danube. 
But the Roman officers, appointed to receive and feed this 
hungry crowd, were so false to their trust that the Goths 
were driven to revolt. In a great battle near Hadrianople, 
Valens and two-thirds of his army were slain. 

277. His successor, Theodosius, being called to interfere 
in western Europe in behalf of the sons of Valentinian, 
united the whole Roman dominion for the last time under 

Hist. -II. 



THE ANCIENT WORLD. 



one sovereign. This great emperor well deserved to be 
called '^Theodosius the Great." He made friends of the 
Goths by settling colonies of them in Thrace and Asia 
Minor. He put an end to pagan worship in every part 
of the Empire, demolishing the temples or turning them 
into Christian churches. Yet, by one act of needless 
cruelty he incurred the displeasure of the famous Arch- 
bishop Ambrose of Milan, and was forbidden to enter a 
church until he had publicly confessed his guilt. Theo- 
dosius submitted, and, after eight months, was restored to 
his standing as a Christian. 

278. Upon his death, A. D. 395, the Empire was 
divided between his sons Arca'dius and Hono'rius ; and 
the East and the West were never again united except 
in name. Al'aric, king of the Visigoths, was placed at 
the head of the imperial armies in the East, and we can 
not tell whether it was as Gothic king or Roman general 
that he three times invaded the dominions of Honorius. 
The first time (A. D. 400-403), he was defeated and 
driven back by Stil'icho, the guardian and minister of the 
young emperor; five years later he advanced to Rome, 
and only withdrew on receiving an enormous ransom, after 
thousands of its citizens had died of famine or pestilence; 
the third time, the "eternal city" was actually taken and 

given up for six days to plunder and massacre. 

The spoils of Asia, brought home by Sulla, 
Pompey, and others, from their great campaigns, fell into 
the hands of the barbarians. Alaric died during his retreat 
from Rome. 

279. His brother-in-law, Adol'phus, who succeeded him, 
founded the new kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain. 
Nearly at the same time the Vandals conquered Roman 
Africa; the Franks settled themselves in northern, and the 
Burgundians in eastern France. Britain was left to be con- 
quered by the Saxons and kindred tribes from Germany. 



FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 123 

280. The Roman generals were called to fight with 
At'tila, king of the Huns, a monster so hideous and hith- 
erto so irresistible, that he was known to the terror-stricken 
world of his time as the Scourge of God. He had rapidly 
built up a kingdom extending from the Rhine to the Volga, 
and from the Black Sea to the Baltic; and a host of 
subject chiefs served in his army of 700,000 men. In a 
great battle at Chalons, he was completely over- 
thrown by the combined force of Romans and 

Goths. Within two years he had collected a fresh horde 
of barbarians, with which he ravaged northern Italy and 
threatened Rome; but a sudden death ended his career. 

281. A series of crimes and quarrels at court, drew 
the Vandals into Italy. They plundered Rome 
fourteen days, and sailed away to Carthage 

laden with all the treasure which the Goths had left. 
They conquered the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, from 
which they could easily descend at any time upon the 
Italian coasts. After half a dozen insignificant emperors 
had been set up and put down by the German chiefs of 
the army, Rom'ulus Augus'tulus, a harmless boy, became 
the last of the Roman Emperors of the West. But the 
Goths wanted to be paid for their services by one-third 
of all the lands in Italy. Being refused, they deposed 
Augustulus, and conferred sovereign power upon their 
own chief, Odo'acer. 

282. The Roman Senate now sent the purple robe and 
diadem, which had been worn by Augustulus, 

to Ze'no, emperor of the East, acknowledging 
that Constantinople was the seat of government for all 
the world, but requesting that Odoacer might fule Italy 
with the title of Patrician. 

Trace the boundaries of Hefmanric's kingdom ; of Attila's. Site 
of Attila's defeat. Settlements of Goths, Franks, Vandals, Bur- 
gundians, Saxons. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.— BOOK I. 



1. How are men divided in their manner of living ? 

2. What are the main divisions of History? 

3. Describe the three great families of mankind and their 

earliest settlements. 

4. The character and history of the Chaldceans. 

5. Name the greatest Assyrian kings and their doings. 

6. Describe Media and the Medes. 

7. The Babylonians and their greatest king. 

8. Phoenician commerce, government, and history. 

9. Name four Syrian nations. 

10. Give some account of the nations in Asia Minor. 

11. Tell the story of the Israelites before Saul. 

12. Describe the three kings of all Israel. 

13. The two Hebrew kingdoms after their separation. 

14. The Jews under Persian rule. 

15. The characters of the Medes and Persians. 41 

16. The career of Cyrus. 

17. Of Cambyses and his successor. 

18. The history and dominion of Darius I. 

19. The career of Xerxes. 

20. Sketch the History of Persia under his successors. 

21. Describe the fall of the Persian Empire. 

22. Africa and the Nile. 

23. Who settled Egypt? 

24. Describe Egyptian arts and religion. 67, 73-75 

25. The different castes or ranks. 

26. Sketch their history. 

27. The history of Carthage ; its government, etc. 

28. Of what race and character were the Greeks ? 

29. Name some of the heroes and their doings. 

30. Describe the manners and religion of the early Greeks. 

31. Their migrations and changes of govei'nment. 
(124) 



Section 
I, 2 



6, 7 

7, 8 
9-15 

16 
17-21 
22-25 

26 
27-29 
30-32 
33-35 
36-38 
39, 40 
62-64 

42-45 
45-47 
48-52 

53-55 
56-59 
59-61 

65 

7, 66 
79, 80 
76-78 
68-72 
81-84 
85-88 
90-92 

93-99 
100, lOI 



QUESTIONS— BOOK I. 1 25 



32. What bonds of union among the Greeks ? 

2,Z- Describe Spartan character and customs. 

34. Name some early wars of Sparta. 

35. Describe the Athenians and their first two lawgivers. 

36. The Tyranny of Pisistratus and his sons. 

37. How were future tyrannies guarded against? 

38. Describe the Persian invasions of Greece. 52-55, 

39. Tell something of Pausanias, Cimon, Themistocles. 

40. The story of Pericles. 

41. Of Alcibiades and the fall of Athens. 

42. What can you tell of Socrates ? 

43. How was the Corinthian War ended > 

44. Describe the rise and fall of Theban supremacy. 

45. How did Greece become subject to Macedon ? 

46. Why was the poetry of Greece older than its prose? 

47. What can you tell of Homer? 94, 

48. Of Hesiod and his works? 

49. Name some great lyric poets. 

50. Describe the theatre at Athens, and name four masters 

of dramatic writing. 

51. The greatest Greek historians. 

52. Describe three schools of Greek philosophy. 

53. What can you tell of Plato and Aristotle? 

54. What can you say of Greek architecture and sculpture? 

55. Name some of the most celebrated works. 

56. Tell the story of Alexander. 

57. How was his empire divided after his death ? 

58. Describe the Syrian kingdom, and some of its kings. 

59. What new dominions arose in the East? 

60. Who were the Maccabees ? 

61. Describe Ptolemy I, and his successors. 

62. What became of Macedonia and Greece? 

63. Who and what were the Romans? 

64. Name the Roman kings. 

65. Describe the government of the Republic. 

66. The religion of the Romans. 

67. The patrician and plebeian contests. 191 -194 

68. The Gallic invasion. 

69. The Samnites. 

70. Tell two stories of the Latin War. 

71. Describe the Samnite Wars. 



102- 


104 


106- 


108 




109 


110- 


- 112 




"3 




114 


115- 


-117 


119- 


- 122 


123- 


-127 


130- 


-133 


134, 


154 




135 


136, 


137 


138, 


140 


142, 


143 


100, 


144 




145 


146, 


147 


148, 


149 


150, 


151 


152, 


153 


154, 


155 


> 


156 


157- 


-159 


160- 


-166 




167 


168, 


169 




169 




171 


172- 


-174 


176- 


-178 


179, 


180 




181 


182- 


-185 


186- 


-189 


196, 


197 




195 




198 


199, 


200 


201, 


202 



126 



Q UES TIONS.—B O OK I. 



'J2. What was done with lands conquered from the ^tqui 

73. Tell the story of Pyrrhus. 

74. Describe Roman colonies and provinces. 205, 

75. How did Rome become a maritime power? 

76. Describe the career of Hannibal. 

77. The last Punic War. 

78. What was done with Greece and Spain ? 

79. Describe the dangers of Rome, and the efforts of 

the Gracchi. 

80. Tell the history of Marius and Sulla. 

81. Describe the Gladiator's War. 

82. The Conspiracy of Catiline. 
^T). The history of Pompey. 

84. Of Julius Caesar. 

85. Of Crassus. 

86. Of Caesar Octavianus. 

87. What change of government did he make? 

88. Describe his three successors. 

89. The character and reign of Nero. 

90. Vespasian and his sons. 

91. Describe the reigns of the "Five Good Emperors." 

92. The state of the empire under Commodus. 

93. "What were the Praetorian Guards? 

94. Tell the history of Septimius Severus and liis sons. 

95. What contrast between Elagabalus and his successor? 

96. What calamities mark the reign of Valerian ? 

97. Describe his successors. 

98. What changes were made by Diocletian ? 

99. Tell the history of Constantine. 
100. Of his sons and nephew. 

loi. What emperors persecuted Christians ? 250, 254, 

102. Name and describe the chief German tribes. 

103. Describe Attila and his Huns. 

104. Theodosius the Great, and the divisions of the 

Empire. 

105. The Goths and Vandals in Italy. 

106. Who settled in England ; in France ; in Spain ; in 

northern Africa? 

107. What disposal was made of the Western Roman 

Empire ? 



203 

204 

209, 244 

206 - 208 

210-214 

215 

216 

217-219 

220-226 

227 

229 

228-235 

230-238 

231, 232 

238-245 

241-244 

246 - 249 

250, 251 

252 

253. 254 

255 

244, 256 

256, 257 

258, 259 

261 

262 

263 - 266 

266 - 269 

270-272 

260, 265 

273-275 

276, 280 

277, 278 

278, 281 

279 
282 



BOOK II.— MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

283. When the empire of the Caesars was falling into 
the hands of barbarians, and Rome itself — the Eternal 
City — was plundered by Goths and Vandals, most people 
thought the end of the world had come. The old world 
had, indeed, passed away: the magnificence of Persia, the 
learning of Egypt, the brilliancy of Greece, the majesty 
of Rome were all in the past; but out of the northern 
forests had come the founders of new nations, who now 
possess Europe and America, India and Australia, and 
many islands of which Rome never dreamed. 

284. Mediaeval history covers the thousand years from the 
time when the barbarian Odoacer became king of Italy to 
the time when the present system of European nations was 
established. It is to be studied in two parts : the first six 
hundred years, when the destructive passions of men were 
in ascendency, are called the Dark Ages; the last four 
hundred, when the tendencies to order and civilization had 
gained strength, are called the Middle Ages. 

285. Even in the Dark Ages some powerful civilizing 
agencies were at work. Most of the barbarians in south- 
ern Europe were Christians, and held the clergy in great 
respect. They also admired the Roman slAl in govern- 
ment, and gladly availed themselves of the services of 
Roman officials. So it came to pass that most of the 

(127) 



1 2 8 INTR OD UC TION. 



cities in Gaul, Spain, and Italy kept their Greek or Roman 
charters, with their bishops for chief magistrates ; and that 
life in these cities was, for a time, as orderly and secure 
as it had been in the days of the Empire. 

Learning had almost wholly disappeared from among 
the laity; the clergy alone could read and write, and pos- 
sessed the universal Latin language which was used in 
dealings between the several nations. They framed laws, 
negotiated treaties, kept the records of public events, and 
executed missions to foreign kings. The education of 
young chiefs was entrusted to them; and their influence 
did not cease when their pupils had grown to manhood. 
Thus the power of the Church rose rapidly upon the 
ruins of imperial Rome. It was, indeed, the only power 
which could hold in check the proud and passionate con- 
querors; and the "Dark Ages" would have been darker 
still, but for the lights of reason and piety which the 
churches kept alive. Many men of superior talents with- 
drew from the turmoil of public life into monasteries, 
where they gave themselves to study and devotion. All 
that was left of the treasures of ancient learning was 
gathered within these convent walls, and the industry of 
the monks multiplied copies of the old manuscripts, which 
afford our only means of knowing the thoughts of the 
Greek and Roman writers. 



PART I.— The Dark Ages. 



CHAPTER 



SETTLEMENTS OF THE NORTHERN TRIBES. 



T the end of the fifth century 
from the birth of Christ, the 
western European nations may 
already be traced in their rude 
beginnings. The heathen 
Angles and Saxons were crowd- 
ing the Celtic Britons into the 
mountain-region of Wales, and 
giving its present name to Eng- 
land. They learned Christian 
doctrines a hundred years later 
from Roman missionaries, and 
taught them to their heathen 
brethren on the continent. The 

A Prankish Warrior. continental SaxOHS OCCUpied 

most of the land between the lower Rhine and the 
Baltic. 

287. The Alema72m possessed southern Germany and part 
of Switzerland, while the Biirgimdians had the valley of 
the Rhone and the Swiss lakes. The Frajiks held the 
country between the Loire and the Rhine. Chlodwig or 
Clo'vis, their chief, gained many victories over the Ale- 
manni, the Burgundians, and the Visigoths, and made 
himself king of nearly all France. His wife, Clotil'da, 
was a Christian; and Clovis, though a pagan, was so 

{129) 




130 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



impressed by her faith that he called upon "Clotilda's 
God," at the turning point of a battle. He gained the 
victory, A. D. 496, and, with thousands of his warriors, 
was immediately baptized. The Eastern emperor sent him 
the purple robe and diadem of a consul, making him 
a lieutenant of the Empire. The descendants of Clovis, 
though often divided by fierce contentions, ruled the 
countries which are now Belgium, Western Germany, 
and a great part of France, for more than two hundred 
years. 

288. One powerful Gothic kingdom occupied Spain 
(§279) and south-western Gaul; another, under Theod'- 
oric, king of the Ostrogoths, embraced Italy and the lands 
between the Adriatic and the Danube. This great chief 
had been a hostage at Constantinople during his youth; 
and the education which he there received added the 
quick intelligence of the Greek to the rude energy of 
the Goth. He learned, also, a profound respect for the 
imperial system of laws, and his firm rule of thirty-three 

years was a happy time for Italy. Two 
. 493-52 . consuls, one chosen by himself and one by 
the emperor of the East, kept up the ancient forms of 
government. All religions were protected, and, though 
the Goths held one-third of the lands and formed a kind 
of military aristocracy, they paid an equal share of the 
taxes, and respected all the rights of their Italian neigh- 
bors. Theodoric was the greatest German monarch of his 
time; the chiefs of the other nations referred their differ- 
ences to him and regarded him as their head. 

289. In the confusion that followed Theodoric's death, the 
Eastern emperor interfered, and, in spite of a long and 
brave resistance from the Goths, made Italy a subject- 
province. But a new German race, the Lombards, or 
Long-Beards, soon appeared and overran the whole penin- 
sula, which was afterwards divided among their thirty 



THE LOMBARDS. 131 



dukes. Rome, Ravenna, Naples, and some other cities 
still remained subject to the Empire, while the Lombards 
ruled the rest with Pavia for their capital. The great 
northern plain of Italy still bears their name. The Lom- 
bards were a fierce and cruel race, never mingling in a 
friendly manner with the Italians, as the Goths had done. 
Still, they became educated, in the course of years, by 
contact with wiser and better people than themselves; so 
that the system of laws published by their king, Rotharis, 
in 643 A. D., was the best of all the barbarian codes. 
It was founded upon the ancient customs of the German 
tribes, but it borrowed some of its best features from the 
Roman laws, and especially from the Bible. 

290. All the tribes hitherto described were Germans: west 
of them was a narrow border of Celts in Scotland, Ireland, 
Wales, and north-western France; while eastward were the 
Slavonians, far more numerous, though less warlike, than 
the Germans — fathers of the modern Poles, Bohemians, 
Bulgarians, Illyrians, and a very large proportion of the 
Russians. 

Point out, on Map 4, the settlements of the German tribes. The 
Lombard capital of Italy. The Italian cities which belonged to the 
Eastern Empire. The dominions of the Slavonians and Celts. 

Read Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Parke 
Godwin's History of France ; and Hallam's Middle Ages. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. 




Byzantine Priest. 



HOUGH the emperor at Constan- 
tinople still called himself lord of 
all the countries which Augustus 
or Trajan had ruled, and though the 
German chiefs acknowledged him their 
superior (§ 281), his actual dominion 
was but little more extensive than that 
of the modern Turks. 

292. During the sixth century the great- 
est emperor was Justin'ian, 
' ^^'' ^ ^' the grandson of a Gothic 
farmer. He had fierce and costly wars 
with Persia, and obtained peace at last 
only by paying tribute to the Sassanidae (§ 259). His 
military glory is all due to his great generals, Belisa'rius 
and Nar'ses. The former conquered northern Africa, 
Sardinia, and Corsica from the Vandals (§279); Sicily 
and all Italy from the Goths (§ 288). Theodoric's king- 
dom fell, sixty years from its foundation. Italy, Africa, 
and the islands were then governed by exaixhs, or lieuten- 
ants of the Empire, one having his seat at Carthage and 
one at Ravenna. Narses, who had an important part in 
the conquest of the Goths, was exarch of Ravenna four- 
teen years. 

293. Justinian is noted for the splendid buildings with 
which he adorned his capital, among which the Church 
of Santa Sophia was said to surpass the Temple of Solo- 
mon. But his best title to fame is in the legislative work 
(132) 



LAWS OF JUSTINIAN. 133 

which afforded a model of civil law for all the nations of 
Europe. The ablest jurists, under his direction, compared 
the decisions of all the best judges since the preparation of 
the Twelve Tables (§ 194). These, when edited, formed 
the Pandects. The Code was an abridgment of the acts of 
all the emperors since Hadrian. The Institutes set forth 
the elementary principles of law, and afforded a text-book 
to the great law-schools of Rome, Athens, Beirut, and 
Constantinople. 

294. By the wars of Herac'lius, one of the greatest of 
Justinian's successors (A. D. 610-641), the Persian Empire 
was overthrown, but the same emperor saw the rise of a 
new and greater power in the East, which will be described 
in the next chapter. Leo III. is called the second founder 
of the Eastern Empire. His brilliant defense of the cap- 
ital against the Saracens, saved it from destruction, while 
his firm and wise government gave it a new era of security. 
His subjects were the most prosperous people 

of that age. The commerce of Europe with ' " ^^^ ''^^' 
Asia had its center at Constantinople, and the cities of 
central and eastern Asia were then far more flourishing 
than now. Leo's attempt to put down the worship of 
images led to a violent contest, both in the East and in 
Italy, and was a chief cause of the separation between the 
Greek and Roman churches. 

295. The Macedonian Dynasty, of which Basil I. was 
the founder, governed the Empire nearly 200 years, and, 
in 867 A. D., raised- it to its highest military fame by 
wars with the Saracens, Russians, and Bulgarians. Basil 
II. was the greatest of the imperial generals. 

Trace, on Map 5, the conquests of Belisarius. Point out the 
capitals of the two Exarchates (§ 292). Justinian's capital. 

Read Gibbon, and Finlay^s "History of the Byzantine Empire.'' 



CHAPTER III. 




Saracens. 



THE SARACENS. 

ROM the sandy deserts of Arabia 
a power had now arisen, which 
threatened to subdue and govern 
the whole extent of the Roman 
dominion. Moham'med, an Ara- 
bian camel-driver, in his journeys 
from Mecca to Damascus, met 
travelers from all nations. He 
had the wit to perceive that all 
the old religions were dead, while 
the Christian church was weakened 
and divided by the war against 
images; and he conceived the bold 
idea of replacing all the creeds by 

the worship of One God, of whom he himself was to be 

the prophet. 

297. His own tribe, however, were so angry at his pre- 
tensions, that they vowed to kill the self-appointed prophet. 

He fled to Medina, where he soon had a pow- 
erful party; and from this flight (Hegira) his 
followers still date their history. Within seven years, all 
Arabia submitted to be not only taught, but governed by 
Mohammed. He claimed to have received from the Arch- 
angel Gabriel a volume containing the decrees of God. 
These he made known only in fragments to his disciples, 
who wrote them on palm-leaves or on bits of bone. After 
his death they were collected and published in the Koran. 

298. He now commenced a wonderful career of con- 
quest, A. D. 629. All who would not believe in his 

(134) 



A. D. 622. 



SARACENS IN THE WEST. 135 

mission were subjected to tribute or death. The bravery 
of his followers was sharpened by reHgious zeal. They 
were told that the moment of every man's death is written 
in the Book of Fate. At that moment he will fall dead, 
wherever he may be; until it comes, he is safe in the 
fiercest storm of battle. 

299. In less than a hundred years the successors of Mo- 
hammed had conquered Persia, Syria, Egypt, northern 
Africa, and Spain. Alexandria was twice re-taken by the 
Greek armies and fleets, after it had submitted to the 
Moslem force, but it was twice re-captured, and its library, 
containing inestimable treasures of ancient literature, was 
destroyed. Constantinople was more fortunate. It was 
twice besieged by the Moslem, once for seven years 
(A. D. 668-675), ^"^ again for thirteen months; but it 
was saved by Greek Fire, an explosive liquid, whose com- 
position — of naphtha, sulphur, and pitch — was then known 
only to the Byzantines. 

300. The great battle that gave Spain to the Saracens, 
was fought at Xeres, on the Guadalete, A. D. 711. It 
lasted seven days; but at length King Rod'erick was put 
to flight, and the Mohammedans, in a few months, over- 
ran the whole peninsula. Prince Pelay'o, with a few brave 
Goths, retreated to the mountains of Asturias, and kept 
alive the Christian power, which grew, in time, to be the 
kingdom of Spain. Multitudes of Moslems, from Syria and 
Arabia, flocked into the country. Their victorious forces 
crossed the Pyrenees, and conquered a great part of south- 
ern France. They meant to subdue the northern shores 
of the Mediterranean as they had the southern, and make 
the Saracen Empire as extensive as that of Augustus or 
Trajan. 

301. But a great power had now arisen in France. The 
descendants of Clovis (§ 287) had lost character and 
energy, so that for a hundred years they had no better 



136 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

name in history than that of do-notJiings and idiots. Their 
authority was in the hands of the Mayors of the Palace, a 
succession of able officers who ruled both kingdom and 
king. Charles Martel, one of the greatest of these mayors, 
mustered all the German tribes to meet the Moslem hosts 
who were advancing for the conquest of France. 

302. The decisive battle was fought, for several days, 

on a plain between Tours and Poitiers. The 
' '^^^' Saracens had better armor, and the confidence 
derived from a century of almost uninterrupted victories. 
The Germans had greater personal strength, and they were 
fighting for home and faith. At length the Arab ranks 
were broken, their general was slain, and they stole away 
in the night, leaving their camp, rich with the plunder of 
southern Europe, to reward the Franks. 

303. Within a few years, the Saracen Empire was divided 
among three families : The Onwii'adcs, who had hitherto 
ruled the whole, lost all but Spain ; the descendants of 
A'li, the son-in-law and first convert of Mohammed, ob- 
tained Persia, Egypt, and Mauretania; while the Abbas' sides, 
descendants of the Prophet's uncle, ruled the rest of the 
Saracen dominion, from their capital, Bagdad, on the 
Tigris. The Abbasside sovereign was called the caliph, 
or successor of Mohammed; and was the religious head 
of Islam, as well as the ruler of the empire. 

304. The first rude era of conquest was succeeded by 
a brilliant period of intellectual progress. The Arabs be- 
came the teachers of Europe in botany, chemistry, and 
medicine. From Samarcand to Cordova, the capital of 
Spain, their great cities were enriched by libraries and 
colleges, and adorned with Moorish architecture. Ha'roun 

al Rasch'id and his successor Alma'mun, 

A. D. 786-833. .... . - ,, 

mvited learned men from all nations to 
their magnificent court at Bagdad, and, by their orders, 
the writings of the Greek philosophers were translated into 



SARACEN PIRATES. 137 

Arabic. Western Europe was now sunk in comparative 
ignorance, and the few great scholars had to seek instruc- 
tion at the schools of the Saracens. 

305. But the Saracens were not all learned or refined. 
Mohammedan freebooters conquered Sicily and Crete, and 
made the latter their slave-market, where captives from 
all the Mediterranean countries were bought and sold. 
All the Sicilian ports were nests of pirates, who preyed 
upon Italy, and even twice attacked Rome. The gold 
and silver in the churches were carried 

11- 111 A. D. 846, 847. 

away, but the city was saved by the energy 
of its Pope, Leo IV. In honor of him, the quarter of 
Rome where the popes live, has ever since been called 
the Leonine City. Thessalonica, the second city of the 
Eastern Empire, was taken by the Saracens; and, after 
most of its people had been massacred, 22,000 of its 
youth were sold into slavery, A. D. 904. 

On Maps 5 and 7, point out Arabia, Mecca, Medina, Xeres, Tours. 
Trace the Saracen conquests, actual and intended. Point out the 
three Saracen kingdoms. Bagdad. Samarcand. Cordova. Thessa- 
lonica. 

Read Irving's "Mahomet and his Successors," Finlay's ** History 
of the Byzantine Empire," and Gibbon's "Decline and Fall." 



Hist. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE WESTERN EMPIRE RESTORED. 




Priest and Paladin. 



^ESIDE preventing a Saracen conquest 
of Europe, the victory of Charles 
Martel, at Tours, had another result 
almost equally important. It caused 
the Frankish chief to be regarded as 
the champion of western Chris- 
tendom, and the natural ally of 
the Pope. While the exarchate 
of Africa was falling into the 
, hands of the Saracens, that of 
Ravenna was losing most of its 
power in Italy. During the war 
for the Images (§294), the Ro- 
mans declared themselves a re- 
public, with the Pope at their 
head, and destroyed the fleet which the Emperor of the 
East sent to compel their submission. But the Lombards 
(§289) were now masters of a great part of Italy, and 
threatened Rome. Pope Greg'ory III. sent an urgent 
appeal for help to the great mayor, Charles Martel, who, 
by conquering Burgundy, Provence, and Aquitaine, had 
extended his power over all modern France. 

307. Charles died too soon to fulfill the wishes of Greg- 
ory; but his son Pe'pin twice invaded Italy with great 
armies, and conquered 22 cities from the Lombard king, 
who, moreover, had to resign one third of all his treasures 
to the Pope. Pepin was already crowned King of the 
Franks; he now received the tide of ''patrician,'' with 
(138) 



CHARLES THE GREAT. 139 

almost the power of the ancient consuls at Rome. Money 
was coined and justice administered in his name, and the 
election of the popes, by the clergy of their diocese, was 
subject to his approval. 

308. Pepin's son Charles was one of the greatest charac- 
ters in history, whether considered as sovereign, lawmaker, 
or military chief By the Pope's invitation he, too, crossed 
the Alps and made war with the Lombards. Pavia, their 
capital, was taken after fifteen months' siege ; their king 
and his family were imprisoned for the rest of their lives; 
and Charles received the iron crown, which made him 
King of Italy. He also extended his protection to the 
Gothic Christians in Spain, and added the land between 
the Pyrenees and the Ebro to his dominion. 

309. In pursuance of his plan for civilizing and Chris- 
tianizing all Europe, he waged war for -iyZ 

years with the heathen Saxons and Slavonians ' ' ^^^ °^' 
in the north and east. At this time there v/as not a city 
in northern Germany. Many towns were founded by 
Charles, as centers not only of trade but of intelligence 
and Christianity. Every town had its bishop, and every 
bishopric and monastery maintained a college. Libraries 
were founded, and copies of the great writings of antiquity 
were distributed among them. The old ballads which told 
of the brave deeds of German heroes were now first col- 
lected by Charles' order. 

310. Before the Saxons were thoroughly reduced co sub- 
mission, the Bavarians revolted against the Prankish power, 
and called the Avars to their aid. These were a Tartar 
tribe, of the same race with Attila's Huns (§280), and 
had been encamped more than 200 years in what is 
now known as Hungary. Not only was Bavaria subdued, 
but, after a long and fierce contest, the Avars also sub- 
mitted to Charles. The spoils of Europe and Asia, which 
had been laid up for centuries in their fortified camp. 



I40 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



went to enrich their conquerors. The long eastern frontier 
of the Frankish dominion, extending from the Adriatic to 
the Baltic, was now guarded by chiefs who were thence 
known as margraves, or Counts of the Border. 

311. On Christmas day, A. D. 800, as Charles was pray- 
ing in the church of St. Peter, at Rome, the Pope placed 
upon his head the crown of the Caesars, saluting him as 
"Charles Augustus, crowned of God, great and peace- 
giving Emperor of the Romans." The throne of Constan- 
tinople had lately been usurped by Irene, a most unnatural 
mother, who had put out her son's eyes to unfit him for 
reigning, and had then thrust herself into his place. It 
was now thought that Old Rome might take back the 
importance which Constantine had given to the New 
(§268), and, as Constantine VI., the blinded emperor, 
was sixty-seventh in order from the first Augustus, Charles 
was numbered sixty-eighth as his successor. 

312. Charles the Great was recognized as the head of 
Christendom, not only by Goths and Saxons in the West, 
but by the caliph Haroun al Raschid (§304), who sent 
him, among other gifts, the keys of the Holy Sepulcher 
at Jerusalem. It was, in fact, the great aim of Charles' 
life to give to his whole dominion that security and peace 
which the Roman world had enjoyed under the best of 
the emperors. Instead of the armed assemblies, which 
had transacted the affairs of the German tribes at the 
March- and May-fields, diets were now instituted, in which 
the bishops had an important part; and the discussions 
were in Latin, so that members from all nations might 
understand. 

313. Charles delighted in the conversation of learned 
men, and continued his own studies all his life, with 
their advice. Wherever he might be, in court or camp, 
in the ancient cities, or in the wildernesses of northern 
Europe, he was surrounded by his learned friends; and 



THE TREATY OF VERDUN. 141 

his house or tent was a school for younger princes, who 
sought his instruction in the arts of war and government. 
With the majesty of the Caesar, he combined the simple 
habits of the Frankish chief. His long and 

r\ ^- • c r . r ^- ^- 768-814. 

mcessantly active reign of 46 years went far 
to transform the Dark Ages into order and enlightenment; 
but, unhappily, his imperial genius did not descend to his 
sons, and the succeeding ages were darker than ever. 

314. Louis the Mild, or the Pious, was the only surviving 
son of Charlemagne, and was already crowned as emperor 
at his father's death, A. D. 814. He shared the imperial 
dignity with his eldest son Lothaire', giving kingdoms to 
his other sons; but they, dissatisfied with their portions, 
made war against each other, and even against their father. 
After Louis' death, a terrible battle between the brothers 
at Fontenaye was followed by the Treaty 

of Verdun, which divided the dominions of ' ^^' 

Charles the Great among his three grandsons. The emperor 
Lothaire had Italy, and a long, narrow territory reaching 
from the Mediterranean to the German Ocean, including 
the two capitals, Rome and Aix.* Louis, henceforth called 
the German^ had the countries north and east of the Rhine, 
while Latin France, west of the Rhone and Saone, was 
allotted to Charles the Bald. 

315. For more than a hundred years the Empire could 
scarcely be said to exist, though its titles were worn, in 
turn, by all three branches of Charlemagne's family. The 
real power rested in the great dukes and margraves, or 



*The "Middle Kingdom" of Lothaire fell apart, under his sons, 
into its three natural divisions: Italy, Burgundy, and Lorraine. 
The latter was soon divided : Lower Lorraine including the Nether- 
lands south of the Rhine, while Upper Lorraine continued to be a 
great duchy on the borders of France and Germany. Burgundy was 
likewise divided into two kingdoms, Upper and Lower, the latter 
having a new name, Provence. 



142 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

marquises, who were the defenders of Europe against a 
host of enemies. The Magyars, a new race of Huns, were 
over-running the continent from the north-east; the Med- 
iterranean swarmed with Saracen pirates (§305), and the 
Northmen, wild sea-rovers from beyond the Baltic, were 
ravaging all the Atlantic coasts. During these calamities, 
those who were bravest and ablest naturally rose into 
power. Thus the counts of Anjou and Paris on the west, 
the dukes of Saxony, Thuringia, Franconia, Bavaria, and 
Suabia on the east, the marquises of Friuli, Spoleto, and 
Tuscany in Italy, were really greater princes than those 
whom they acknowledged as their lor(^s. 

316. The Feudal System was now in force through- 
out the Western Empire; /. e., knights and nobles held 
their lands on condition of military service and homage 
to the chief who had granted them. "Great vassals" 
held directly from the king or emperor; but they had 
vassals under them, until the whole land was parceled 
out in ''knight's fees," some of them barely large enough 
to hold a castle. When a king made war, he summoned 
his vassals, who in turn summoned theirs; and, when all 
met at the appointed place, the great army was made up 
of a cluster of little armies. The great lords vied with 
each other in the multitude of their retainers; the knights, 
in their costly armor and skillful horsemanship, and all in 
their bravery in the fight. When there was no real war, 
mock combats, called tilts and tourneys, were often held, 
to cultivate and display their skill. 

317. The ceremony by which feudal obligation was ac- 
knowledged, was called homage, because the vassal, kneel- 
ing before his king or lord, vowed to be his man in life 
and limb. In return, the chief was bound to protect his 
vassal against injustice or violence, and to punish any who 
injured him. The poor people who cultivated the lands, 
and were given away with them, had no rights except 



THE HOLY ROMAN ExMPIRE. 143 

what humanity would concede — that of being protected 
with their famihes in time of danger. 

318. A king sometimes did homage to another king for 
lands within his dominion; the kings of the Franks even 
did homage to the abbot of St. Denis for their county of 
Paris. The kings of Naples, as we shall see, held their 
whole realm as a "fief of St. Peter;" and some of the 
popes insisted that all kingdoms ought to be so held. 

319. The "feudal tenure," as it is called, gradually 
took the place of all other holdings. Absolute owners of 
land were glad to put themselves under the protection of 
some powerful lord, especially of the the great abbots, 
whose lands were more secure and better tilled than any 
others. So it came to pass that the Church owned half 
the territories of western Europe. 

320. After the descendants of Charlemagne had proved 
unfit to reign, several great chiefs in Italy and Provence 
fought for the imperial crown until the Pope called an- 
other king out of Germany to end their disputes. This 
was O'tho the Great, who was crowned at Rome, A. D. 
962. His father, Henry the Fowler, had been duke of 
Saxony, and was elected king of the Germans. In many 
fierce battles he had subdued the pagan Wends and the 
Magyars, and had planted in the eastern wilderness many 
towns, to be centers of orderly life and strongholds against 
the barbarians. 

321. The crown of the ^^ Holy Roman Empire,''^ as it 
now began to be called, was bestowed, for more than 800 
years upon the kings chosen by the German princes. 
They were first crowned at Aix as Emperors-Elect, but 
could not bear the titles of Caesar and Augustus until they 
had received the imperial diadem from the hands of the 
Pope. They also assumed the iron crown of Italy at 
Milan, and some of the emperors wore that of Burgundy 
at Aries (§314 note). 



144 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

'>^ii. One third part of Italy still obeyed the emperors 

of the East, whose forces Otho and his son vainly attempted 

to expel. Otho II. married a Greek princess; and their 

son, Otho III., who was crowned emperor at 

* ^^ ■ sixteen, was the "wonder of the world" for 
his brilliant genius and his high aims in governing. But 
he died in the very dawn of his manhood, and the bright 
promise passed away. The choice of the German princes 
now fell upon Henry II., duke of Bavaria, and, after his 
death, upon Con'rad I., chief of the Franconian line. 

323. Under Henry III., son of Conrad, the power of 

the empire reached its height. He rescued 

• 104 -105 . j^^^^^g ixom. the disgrace of several unworthy 
popes, who had used their high office for selfish and corrupt 
purposes. Setting aside three who laid claim to the dignity, 
he appointed a better man than any of them; and the 
emperors thenceforth claimed the right to nominate the 
popes. 

324. Henry III. died suddenly, A. D. 1056, when his 
only son was but a child. While the little prince was 
growing to manhood, Hil'debrand, a Tuscan monk, gained 
great power in the Church, and became almost as important 
a figure in the panorama of those Dark Ages as Charlemagne 
himself. He, too, had a plan for bringing order out of the 
misery and confusion of the times — to subject all ranks 
and classes to the absolute authority of the popes. As the 
vicegerents of God upon earth, he taught that they had 
the right to crown or depose kings at their pleasure. 

325. About the time that Henry IV. attained his majority, 
A. D. 1073, Hildebrand became Pope Gregory VII. Then 
began a violent contest between the two rulers of Christen- 
dom. The emperor summoned a Diet at Worms, which 
deposed the pope; and the pope convened a Council at 
Rome, which dethroned and excommunicated the emperor. 
These great revolutions, it will be understood, were only 



HENRY IV. AT CANOSSA. 1 45 

accomplished on parchment; but the war of words soon 
became an affair of hard blows. Henry was a man of 
proud and passionate nature; the pope was equally bold 
and resolute, and on his side were enlisted nearly all the 
intellect and learning of the time, as well as the sympathy 
of the common people, in whose rank he had been born. 
At his command the German bishops and abbots declared 
against Henry; and the Saxons, who were angry at the 
passing of the crown from their ducal line to the Franconian 
(§322), broke out into revolt. In this desperate case, 
Henry crossed the Alps in winter and stood barefoot in the 
snow for three days at the gates of the Castle of Canossa 
before he was admitted to kiss the feet of Gregory and 
humbly confess his faults. Even this did not save him; 
a rival emperor was chosen; and though Henry defeated 
him, and outlived Pope Gregory by twenty years, yet all 
his life was embittered by the malice of his enemies. 
His sons rebelled against him, with the aid of the popes, 
and at last he died of a broken heart, in poverty and 
humiliation. 

Trace, on Map 7, the conquests of Charles Martel. Of Charle- 
magne. The divisions made by the Treaty of Verdun. Of Lothaire's 
Middle Kingdom. The great fiefs mentioned in ^315. Point out 
Aix-la-Chapelle, Aries. Milan, Rome. 

Read Book IV of Parke Godwin's History of France; Bryce's 
"Holy Roman Empire;" and a chapter on the Feudal System in 
Hallam's " Middle Ages." 



Hist. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE NORTHMEN. 




c^joa>;s.v^ Danish Pirates 

HE last of the northern nations who con- 
quered a place in southern and western 
Europe were the natives of Denmark and 
the Scandinavian peninsula; but these were 
found superior to all the rest, excepting, perhaps, the 
Goths, in vigor of mind and body, and ni their aptitude 
for civilized life. Their native land being too poor to 
support them all, multitudes of young Northmen sought 
their fortunes abroad. As early as the eighth century 
a large body of them passed overland to Constantinople, 
and enlisted in the guards of the emperor of the East. 

Successive bands of their countrymen, moving in 
the same direction, conquered the Slavic king- 
doms of Novgorod and Kiev, and became 
founders of the Russian Empire. Ru'ric was the first 
Norman ruler of Russia. Christianity was introduced by 
(146) 



327- 



A. D. 862. 



NORMAN SETTLEMENTS, 147 



Greek missionaries, and, in A. D. 955, Queen Ol'ga was 
baptized at Constantinople. Vlad'imir the 
Great increased his empire by conquest, ' ' ^ °"^°^5' 
and civiHzed it by many churches and schools. Yar'oslav 
was a still greater benefactor, for he procured the transla- 
tion of the Holy Scriptures and many other books into the 
Slavonic language, and made the first Russian code of laws. 

328. Greater numbers of the Northmen became sea- 
rovers, the terror of all western Europe. Wherever they 
landed, the smoking ruins of houses, churches, and mon- 
asteries marked their track. At first they only ravaged 
the coasts; then, as they grew bolder and more numerous, 
they established fortified camps near the mouths of the 
rivers, whence they pursued their depredations over a wide 
extent of country. At length their numbers and powers 
were so great that they settled themselves on extensive 
tracts of land, the inhabitants of which they had expelled 
or destroyed. Thus a great part of eastern England and 
north-western France became their permanent abode, and 
they now proved that extraordinary genius for order and 
good government which no one certainly would have 
expected of the terrible sea-robbers. 

329. One condition exacted by King Alfred, ^-^ in Eng- 
land, from Gu'thrun, the Danish chief, and by King 
Charles, in France, from Rollo, was that both, with their 
principal followers, should become Christians. This they 
did with apparent good faith. The English Danes could 
not, however, prevent their pagan countrymen over the 
sea from trying their good fortune ; and, under the weak 
reign of Eth'elred II., they gained such power that Eng- 



* Alfred, the West Saxon, A. D. 871 -901, was the best of the early 
English kings. By many years hard fighting, he reclaimed his king- 
dom from the Danes, and then civilized it by wise laws, schools, and 
books, which he either translated, or caused to be translated, from 
Greek and Latin. He is truly called Alfred THE Great. 



148 MEDIALVAL HISTORY. 

land was added, for a time, to the Scandinavian Empire 
of Knut. 

330. The duchy of Normandy had, meanwhile, become 
the richest and best governed part of France. A succes- 
sion of able rulers was descended from Rollo, and many 
beautiful cathedrals and abbey-churches expressed their zeal 
for the religion which they had so lately adopted. Their 
restless spirits and their new faith were equally indulged 
by pilgrimages, which, indeed, many western Christians 
undertook, but of which the Normans were especially fond. 
On their way to the tomb of our Lord, or the shrines of 
His saints and aposdes, the Norman knights had their eyes 
wide open for any warHke adventures that might offer. 

331. In passing through southern Italy, they did not 
fail to remark the weakness and wealth of the Greek cities, 
which, though belonging to the Eastern Empire, were 
always exposed to the attacks of Saracens or Lombards. 
By taking sides with one party or the other, the Normans 
gained great power for themselves, and, at length, became 
masters of twelve cities, which they formed into a military 
republic. After a victory over the Pope's forces at Civ- 

itella, they declared themselves vassals of the 
■ '°^^' Church, and so gained his favor and protec- 
tion (§317). Under Robert Guiscard, their duke, they 
gradually drove out the Greek magistrates of the cities and 
conquered from the Lombards their last possession, thus 
making the Norman power supreme in southern Italy. At 
the same time Roger Guiscard was conquering Sicily ^^ from 



••'■Of the Normans in Sicily, an English historian says: "No con- 
queror ever deserved better of the conquered. The noble island of 
Sicily, so lonj; the battle-field of Europe and Africa, became, under 
Norman kings, the one example of really equal and tolerant govern- 
ment which the world could then show. Under the Norman scepter, 
the two most civilized races of the world, Greeks and Saracens, could 
live together in peace, and enrich their common country with results 
of skill and industry such as no northern realm could rival." 



NORMANS IN ENGLAND. 149 

the Saracens, and held it as a fief from his brother. Thus 
arose the kingdom of Naples, or the Two Sicilies. 

332. A still more important Norman conquest was that 
of England. Duke William, the sixth from Rollo, was a 
cousin of Edward the Confessor, the last English king of 
the family of Alfred. William declared that Edward, hav- 
ing no children, had promised him the English crown. 
This weakest of claims was, however, supported by strong 
arguments, in the favor of the Pope and the arms of 
60,000 warriors. He landed, with a great army, in the 
south of England; Harold, the Saxon king 

chosen by the people, was slain in the Battle 

of Hastings; and the whole country submitted, in time, to 

"W^illiam the Conqueror." 

333. He divided the land in fiefs among his barons, and 
gave all the chief places in church and government to 
foreigners. The Saxon nobles descended to the rank of 
thanes, or country gentlemen. William was the ablest 
prince of his age, and he usually aimed to be just; but he 
was terribly cruel and obstinate when his will was crossed. 
Among his most tyrannical acts was the devastation of 
a belt of land, 60 miles wide, in northern England, by 
which 100,000 people were made homeless, and thousands 
perished of hunger and cold. This was done to guard 
against invasions from Scotland and Norway. There was 
even less excuse for the burning of 60 villages, in Hamp- 
shire, to provide the "New Forest" for the king's favorite 
sport of hunting. 

334. William Rufus (A. D. 1087 -i 100), the second son 
and successor of the Conqueror, was an able but wicked 
king, caring more for his own wild pleasures than for 
the dearest interests of his people. He was killed by an 
arrow, while hunting in the "New Forest." His brother, 
Henry I, had been carefully educated for his duties as 
an English sovereign, and in many ways pleased the 



150 MEDIEVAL HISTORY, 

people, especially by marrying the heiress of their Saxon 
kings. But he unjustly deprived his eldest brother, Robert, 
of his Norman inheritance, and kept him shut up in Car- 
diff Castle for the last twenty-eight years of his life. 

335. Henry's only son, William, was drowned in the 
Channel, and the king attempted to secure the English 
crown to his daughter Matil'da. Some of the barons 
would have sustained her claim; but her haughty spirit 
offended them, and, after ten years of distracting civil 
war, Matilda fled to the continent, while her cousin, 

Stephen, was acknowledged as king. The 
. 1135 1154. pgQpjg suffered infinite miseries as a con- 
sequence of .these royal disputes. The land was left un- 
cultivated; for the poor people had no encouragement to 
sow or plant, when the fruits of their toil were sure to 
be swept away by knightly robbers whose castles com- 
manded the whole country. Famine created solitudes, 
where once had been villages full of happy homes. The 
dispute was settled in A. D. 1153, by the death of Ste- 
phen's only son. He then consented to acknowledge 
Matilda's son, Henry, as his heir. 

336. France During the Dark Ages. — It has been 
seen how the feeble successors of Clovis gave way to the 
family of Pepin, and how the dominions of Charlemagne 
were divided among his grandsons (§ 314). The western 
part of those dominions remained longer under Carlo- 
vingian rule, than did either Italy or Germany, and kept 
exclusively the name of France. The descendants of 
Charlemagne had but little of his genius for war and gov- 
ernment; and the defense of the country against Saxon 
and Norman pirates was left to the great nobles, espe- 
cially to Robert the Strong, Count of Anjou and Orleans. 
Three times Paris was besieged by the Northmen, twice 
it was taken by storm, and the banks of the Seine were 
whitened with the bones of its murdered people. Charles 



HOUSE OF CAPET IN FRANCE. 151 

II., called the Fat, who, for a little while, reunited the 
whole empire of Charlemagne, only bribed 

, . J rr 1 1 , . A. D. 885, 886. 

the pirates and suffered them to carry their 

ravages farther inland, while he spent his strength in 

fighting the members of his own family. 

337. Count Robert was killed in battle, but his son, 
Eu'des, bravely defended Paris, and was called to the 
throne from which Charles had been deposed for his cow- 
ardice, A. D. 887. But a small party crowned Charles 
the Simple, who reigned north of the Seine while Eudes 
lived, and afterwards over all France. He gave up a 
large region, in north-western France, to Rollo the Dane, 
on condition of his followers becoming Christian and civ- 
ilized. To do them justice, the wild sea-rovers soon ex- 
celled their masters in the arts of orderly living (§ 330). 

338. Under the descendants of Charles IV., the real 
power rested with Hugh the Great, Duke of France and 
Count of Paris, who, for thirty-three years, set up and 
put down princes at his pleasure. His son, Hugh Capet, 
was chosen king by the nobles, A. D. 987, and his family 
continued to rule France more than eight centuries. His 
actual power was less, however, than that of some of his 
vassals. When he tried to compel the obedience of one 
by demandhig, "Who made you a count?" the reply 
was, "Who made you a king?" Continental Europe 
was then divided into great fiefs, and royalty was little 
more than a shadow. The dukes of Normandy, Bur- 
gundy, and Aquitaine, the counts of Flanders, Champagne, 
and Toulouse, were sovereign in their own dominions, 
paying little respect and still less obedience to the king. 

339. The reigns of Hugh and his son, Robert the 
Pious, were among the darkest periods of 

history. Under a deluded notion that the ' ' ^ ^ '°^^' 
year 1000 was to be the end of the world, the terror- 



152 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

stricken people refused to cultivate the ground. Famine 
and pestilence ensued, and some of the starved peasantry 
even fed on human flesh. A terrified crowd filled the 
churches; many princes and rich nobles bestowed their 
wealth upon the monks, and set off on pilgrimages to the 
Holy Land, where it was believed Christ would soon 
appear. When the fatal year had passed, the western 
world breathed again; but it was long before the injury 
springing from this delusion was repaired. 

Another and long prevailing source of misery was found 
in the private wars of the barons. No one dreamed of 
mercy or even common justice toward the peasants, whose 
fields were laid waste and their families reduced to starva- 
tion by the quarrels of their masters. Under Henry I. 
(1031-1060), the French clergy succeeded in establishing 
what was called the "Truce of God," and, in some 
degree, abated these calamities. All fighting was for- 
bidden between Wednesday evening and Monday morning, 
as well as on all holy days. 

Trace, on Map No. 7, the conquests and settlements of the 
Northmen. 

Read Freeman's ** Norman Conquest;" Palgrave's "Normandy 
and England ; " Green's " Short History of the English People ; " 
Hume's or Knight's *' History of England ; " Michelet's '* History 
of France." 



PART II.— The Middle Ages. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE CRUSADES. 

»HE Saracen Empire in Asia was 
now in decline, and all its real 
power had fallen into the hands 
of the Turks, a fierce Tartar tribe, 
whose dominion, under Malek 
Shah, extended from Arabia to 
the borders of China. In A. D. 
1073 t^^y conquered Jerusalem, 
and put an end to the indulgence 
which Christian pilgrims had en- 
joyed under the caliphs. Multi- 
tudes, returning to Europe, told 
stories of cruel outrages inflicted 
by the barbarians; and the rage 
and grief excited by these stories came to their height 
when Peter the Hermit, a French monk, who had been 
in the East, traveled through Italy and France, with the 
approval of Pope Urban II., setting forth his plan for 
wresting the holy places from the infidel. All 
Europe was ablaze with zeal. Thousands of 
every rank and age put the red cross on their shoulders, 
which declared their purpose to die, if need were, for the 
deliverance of the Holy Land. Hence the wars which 
followed are called Crusades, or wars of the Cross. 

(153) 




Crusader. 



A. D. 1096. 



154 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

341. Not only soldiers, but old men, women, and chil- 
dren — some say to the number of six millions — took part 
in the First Crusade. An unnumbered host of these, 
without order, officers, or plan, set out in the spring of 
1096 A. D. In their ignorance, they expected to be fed 
by miracle, and to arrive at Jerusalem in a few days. 
Disappointed in both hopes, they either perished miserably 
of starvation and fatigue, or were killed in battle by the 
people whose corn-fields and granaries they attempted to 
rob. The few who advanced as far as Asia Minor, were 
slain by the Turks near Nice, and a pyramid of their bones 
was the only monument of this vanguard of the crusading 
hosts. 

342. The .regular army of Crusaders moved in the au- 
tumn, by four different routes, toward their rendezvous 
at Constantinople. The most northerly division was led 

by God'frey of Bouillon, duke of Lower Lor- 
" ^°^ ' raine; the next, by Ray'mond of Toulouse, the 
greatest lord in southern France; the third, by Bo'emond 
of Taranto, son of Robert Guiscard (§331); and the last, 
by four princes, of whom one was Robert of Normandy, 
eldest son of the king of England. 

343. The emperor Alex'is, who had before been in terror 
of the Turks, was now equally alarmed by the numbers and 
power of his allies. The free and haughty bearing of the 
Franks — as all western Christians were, and are still, 
called at Constantinople — shocked his ceremonious court; 
and he was glad to "speed the parting guest" across the 
Bosporus. He was rewarded for his somewhat grudging 
hospitality by the town and fortress of Nice, which the 
Crusaders wrested from the Turks and restored to the 
Eastern Empire. 

344. Another great victory was gained over the Turks 
at Dorylffi'um; but much had yet to be suffered before the 
Christian host arrived at Antioch, the capital of Syria 



CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM. 155 

(§168). The Turks had laid waste the country, and 
filled or poisoned the wells; so that multitudes died on the 
march, of hunger and thirst. Antioch withstood a siege 
of seven months; and when it was taken, the Christians 
were besieged in turn by a fresh army of 200,000 Turks, 
while a violent plague carried off 100,000 of 
their own forces. Nevertheless, a victory was " • ^°9 • 
gained, which opened the way to Jerusalem; but it was a 
pitiful remnant of the gallant armies, which, three years 
before, had assumed the Cross, that now arrived, with tears 
and shouts of joy, before the Holy City. 

345. This was again in the possession of the Saracens 
from Egypt, who had wrested it from the Turks; but a 
forty days' siege — during which the assailants 

suffered agonies of thirst in the midsummer ' • '°9 • 
heat — ended in its capture by the Christians. By the 
votes of his brave comrades, Duke Godfrey was chosen to 
be the first Christian king of Jerusalem. He refused to 
wear a golden crown in the city where his Master had 
worn the crown of thorns; but he consented to be styled 
Guardian of Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulcher. Godfrey 
survived his consecration to this office only one year, and 
was succeeded by his brother Baldwin. 

346. By successive conquests, the Christian kingdom of 
Jerusalem was extended eastward to the Euphrates, and 
southward to the borders of Egypt. The French language, 
customs, and laws prevailed throughout the lands once 
ruled by David and Solomon, which were parceled out 
into four great feudal baronies. The first of the three 
famous Orders of Chivalry, which added monkish vows to 
those of the knight, had its origin in the First Crusade. 
This was the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, or the 
''Knights Hospitallers." They were soon followed by the 
"Templars," who undertook the defense of pilgrims, and 
later by the "Teutonic" Order. 



156 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

347. The Second Crusade was preached by St. Bernard', 
abbot of Clair vaux — the greatest mind in Christendom in 

his time — and was led by two great mon- 
. . 114 -1149. ^j^^i^g^ ^j^g emperor Conrad III. and king 

Louis VII. of France. Nevertheless, it ended in nothing 
but disaster and disgrace. 

348. Sal'adin, the prince of Moslem warriors for valor, 
courtesy, and gentleness of soul, now became sultan of 
Syria and Egypt. In a great battle near Lake Tiberias 

he broke the power of the Christians, and 
A. D. 1187. captured their king, Guy of Lusignan, with 

the grandmaster of the Templars, and many other nobles. 
Most of the important towns in Syria — and, last of all, 
Jerusalem — fell into his hands. This calamity aroused all 
Europe. The great emperor, Frederic Barbaros'sa, with 
his son and eighty-eight German princes, assumed the 
Cross, and so did the kings Philip Augustus of France 
and Richard the Lion-Hearted of England. 

349. The emperor never saw Jerusalem, for he was 
drowned in a little river in Asia Minor. All the Christian 
forces in Syria were mustered for the siege of Acre, when 

the arrival of the French and English kings 
■ "^^' effected its capture. The prodigious strength 

and valor of Richard were the admiration of the Christians, 
and the terror of the Saracens. But Philip was jealous, 
and, feigning illness, he returned home. Richard took and 
re-fortified Jaffa, Ascalon, and Gaza, and, fighting every 
step of the way, advanced within sight of Jerusalem. But 
his allies refused to join him in besieging it, and he 
withdrew in grief and shame, covering his face with his 
shield. 

350. News now came that King Philip was plotting with 
Richard's brother John for a partition of his dominions. 
John was to have England, while Philip seized all the fiefs 
in France for which Richard was his vassal (§318). These 



FOURTH AND FIFTH CRUSADES. 157 

were the two great duchies of Normandy and Aciuitaine, 
with the counties of Maine, Anjou, Poitou, and Touraine. 
After making an honorable peace with Saladin, Richard 
embarked for home; but he was shipwrecked in the Adri- 
atic, and landing at Zara, tried to make the journey across 
Europe in the disguise of a merchant. He was recognized, 
seized, and imprisoned, by his bitterest enemy, the duke 
of Austria, whom he had insulted after the capture of 
Gaza. At length, being summoned to plead his cause 
before the Diet of the Western Empire (§312), Richard was 
permitted to be ransomed and restored to his kingdom. 

351. A Fourth Crusade was proclaimed, A. D. 1200, by 
Pope Innocent III. The overland route had now been 
found too dangerous, and the French barons made a treaty 
with the Venetian Republic, then the greatest maritime 
power in Europe, to transport their armies, by sea, to the 
Holy Land. But first they undertook the cause of Isaac 
Angelus, emperor of the East, who had been dethroned, 
imprisoned, and deprived of his sight by an unnatural 
brother. By two attacks they captured Constantinople, 
and restored the blind old emperor to his throne; but a 
quarrel afterward broke out between the Greeks and the 
Franks, which ended in a second capture of the 

city, and the foundation of the Latin Empire 

of the East. Most of the crusaders never reached the 

Holy Land at all. 

352. The Fifth Crusade was marked by the siege and 
capture of Damietta in Egypt, though the Christian forces 
were afterwards overwhelmed with calamities by an over- 
flow of the Nile. The emperor Frederic II. was now 
engaged in a fierce contention with the Pope, who 
had first excommunicated him for delaying to join the 
Crusade, and again, for presuming to go while under cen- 
sure. His presence in the Holy Land, A. D. 1229, how- 
ever, secured the surrender of Jerusalem, Jaffa, Bethlehem, 



158 MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 

and Nazareth to the Christians, and he assumed the crown 
of Jerusalem in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. 

353. The Sixth Crusade was led by the king of Navarre, 
and by the English Prince Richard, a nephew of the 
Lion-hearted. By peaceful agreement, the greater part of 
Palestine was surrendered to the Christians, and the walls 
of Jerusalem were rebuilt. Christians and Saracens were 
now compelled to join their forces against a i)agan horde 
of Tartars, who had been expelled from Korasmia by 

Genghis Khan, and who, sweeping over Pales- 
* "'*'*' tine, captured Jerusalem, and murdered a vast 
multitude of its people. A two days' battle ended in the 
almost complete extermination of the Syrian hosts. But 
Bar'bacan, the Tartar chief, was soon slain, and western 
Asia breathed again. 

354. The Seventh Crusade was led by the good king 

Louis IX. of France. He captured Damietta, 
■ '^"^ ■ but afterwards, overwhelmed with disasters and 
himself a prisoner, he had to surrender it for his ransom. 
He then spent four years in the Holy Land, where he 
repaired the fortifications of Acre, and ransomed many 
thousands of Christian captives. 

355. The Eighth Crusade was accasioned by the fall of 
Antioch; 17,000 of its people being slain, and 100,000 
carried away as slaves, by an army of Mamelukes from 
Egypt. King Louis heartily engaged in it, but he died 
of the plague, in Tunis, before he could reach Palestine. 

Prince Edward, the future king of England, 
' '^^^' gained a victory over the Turks, and secured 
a favorable truce of ten years. 

356. The last general effort for the deliverance of the 
Holy Land is not even numbered by most historians 
among the Crusades, though the emperors of the East 
and West were enrolled in it. Acre was the only remain- 
ing possession of the Christians in the East, and it was 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 159 



besieged by a great army of 200,000 Mamelukes. The 
defense was long and obstinate, but at last the city fell, 
and all Palestine was overrun by the Turks. 

357. Although the Crusaders had failed of the end they 
sought, they had gained others of far more value. Their 
minds were enlarged by contact with customs different 
from, and usually superior to, their own. Compared with 
the art, learning, and refined society of Constantinople, the 
Franks were barbarians. Even from the Saracens, whom 
they had pictured as inhuman monsters, they had much 
to learn. They were amazed to find the "infidel dogs" 
better behaved than themselves ; but they could not fail 
to admire the delicate generosity of Saladin, who sent 
snow from Lebanon to Richard in sickness, and presented 
him with two beautiful Arabian horses when Richard's own 
had been killed in battle. 

358. Several peculiar products of Asia — sugar, for ex- 
ample — were first brought into Europe by Crusaders, and 
a brisk trade now sprang up between the East and the 
West. Venetian merchants visited the great cities of China, 
and it is probable that they found there two inventions, 
gunpowder and printing, which were to change the whole 
current of European life. 

359. The immediate results in the West were not less 
great. Europe was divided, as we have seen, into a multi- 
tude of duchies and counties, whose holders w^ere perpetu- 
ally making war upon each other. Now it was good for 
those quarrelsome chiefs to be moved for once by a com- 
mon feeling, the only feeling that could move kings and 
vassals, priests and peasants alike. It is true that their 
quarrels were not always hushed even at the tomb of 
Christ; and that the Holy Wars were disgraced by many 
unholy passions; still the combatants had sometimes the 
grace to be ashamed of the impiety. The lands which 
knights and barons had sold to pay the expenses of their 



i6o MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

crusades, were bought in many cases by the Church, but 
in others by thrifty citizens, and thus a middle class sprang 
up between nobles and peasants. 

360. The three Orders of Chivalry, which had arisen 
from the Crusades, were now rich and powerful. The 
Temjilars, having no fit use either for their vast wealth 
or their knightly energies, became haughty, luxurious, and 
dangerous to the governments under which they lived. 
Their order was dissolved about 40 years after the last 
Crusade, and their lands were given to the Knights of 
St. John. 

361. These, in their successive stations at Cyprus, 
Rhodes, and Malta, kept up a rigorous discipline, and 
bravely defended southern Europe from the Turks. The 
Teutonic Knights had yet harder work to do. The Prus- 
sians, and several other tribes near the Baltic, were still 
heathen, and a century and a half of fierce conflict pre- 
ceded the establishment of Christianity in the northern 
wilds. The industry of the brotherhood meanwhile turned 
the salt marshes into fertile fields by means of dykes and 
drainage; and Marienburg, their fortress and capital, be- 
came a center of civilizing influences for all that pagan 
region. 

Trace, on Maps 4 and 8, the general course of Crusaders in 1096 
A. D. Point out their first conquest ; Antioch, Jerusalem, Acre, 
Jaffa, Ascalon, Gaza, Damietta. Lake Tiberias. Boundaries of the 
Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem. Stations of the Knights of St. 
John. Territory of the Teutonic Knights. 

Read Hallam's "Middle Ages," Ch. I, Part I, and Ch. VI; Mill's 
History of the Crusades; Michelet's History of France. Rev. James 
White's History of France, in one volume, will be found very useful 
by those who lack time or opportunity to consult larger works. 



CHAPTER VII. 



GUELFS AND GHIIJELLINES. RISE OF ITALIAN AND GERMAN CITIES. 




Venetian Nobleman. 



%HE two great powers of Europe, 
during the Middle Ages, were the 
Church and the Empire, and these, 
as we have seen, were often at 
deadly strife (§ 325). The emperor 
was the civil head of Christendom, 
as the pope was the spiritual head; 
and they often differed as to the 
boundaries of their respective juris- 
dictions. This rivalry probably had 
one advantage, in preventing either 
from becoming absolute. The 
haughty will of the Ccesar could 
bow to none but the vicegerent of 
God; while the ambition of the Pope could only be curbed 
by a power which, like his own, was held to be of divine 
appointment. The Church had done good service in main- 
taining order during the Dark Ages; and, if it did not 
enlighten the people, it guarded the treasures of ancient 
learning for the benefit of later times. 

363. The Guelfs and the Hohenstaufen, two powerful 
German families, contended for the imperial crown. The 
latter obtained it, A. D. 1138; and the name Ghibelline, 
taken from one of their castles, was adopted, by the ad- 
herents of the emperors, to distinguish them from the 
Pope's party, who more commonly sided with the Guelfs. 
The cities of Italy, most of them independent republics, 
declared themselves either Guelf or Ghibelline; and as 



Hist.— 14. 



(161) 



1 62 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

they were almost constantly at war, either among them- 
selves or against the emperor, these battle-cries rang 
through the peninsula for centuries. 

364. The great city of Milan, once an imperial capital 
(§263), led the opposition to Frederic L, the greatest 
of the Hohenstaufen. Twice it was besieged and taken, 
and after the second capture its stately walls were leveled 
with the ground. Even its enemies and rivals now joined 
it in a ''Lombard League," which gained a great victory 
over Frederic at Legnano, A. D. 11 76. Seven years later 
the Peace of Constance established the independence of 
all the Lombard cities. 

365. By marrying the heiress of the last Norman king 
(§ 334) J Frederic's son, Henry VL, obtained the crown of 
the Two Sicilies, in addition to that of the Empire. His 

son, Frederic IL, was called Stupor Mundi 
. 1212-1250. ^^^^^ Amazement of the World), by reason 
of his brilliant talents. He enriched his native Italy by 
improved laws, and by his liberal patronage of art, liter- 
ature, and commerce. Nevertheless, he was continually 
at war with the popes, who, at length, deposed him and 
offered all his crowns (§ 324) to other princes. His death 
was followed by 23 years of confusion, several rival em- 
perors being acknowledged by different parties. The im- 
perial crown was given, at last, to Rudolph of Hapsburg, 
who had the good sense to leave Italy to itself, and use 
his power against the turbulent princes and robber-knights 
who were destroying the peace of Germany. He demol- 
ished 70 castles, the strongholds of these marauders. 

366. Italy became almost wholly Guelf. The Two Sic- 
ilies were bestowed upon Charles of Anjou, a French 
prince, who, moreover, ruled Provence in right of his wife, 
and exerted imperial power in Rome and several northern 
cities. But his harshness drove the Sicilians to revolt, and 
8,000 French were massacred, A. D. 1282. The island 



RIENZI AT ROME. 163 



became a separate kingdom, ruled for a century and a half 
by Arragonese princes. The "Two Sicilies" were reunited 
in 1435, under Alfon'so of Arragon. 

367. The cities of Lombardy soon lost their freedom 
and submitted to podestas, or tyrants, of whom the greatest 
were the Visconti of Milan. Rome was filled with murder 
and robbery, especially after Pope Clem'ent V. had re- 
moved the "Chair of St. Peter" to Avignon, in southern 
France. The 72 years absence of the popes 

, . - , , A. D. 1305-1377. 

was known to writers of that day as a 
"Babylonish Captivity." During this time the Roman 
tribune, Rienzi, succeeded, for a few months, in restor- 
ing order and dignity to his native city. Turbulent nobles 
submitted to his authority; not only Italian 
cities, but foreign kings, recognized the new " ' ^^^^' 
Republic; robbery ceased, and prosperity revived. But 
Rienzi's head was turned by his success; he was exj^elled; 
and when, after six years' exile and imprisonment, he 
returned with the support of the pope, he was slain in a 
popular riot. 

368. In 1377, Pope Gregory XI. came back to Rome; 
but his death was followed by the Great Schism (§ 419), 
during which two, and even three, popes were obeyed at 
once by different nations. In spite of these troubles, Italy 
was by far the richest and most civilized portion of Europe. 
The merchant-princes of Genoa and Venice lived in palaces 
surpassing those of kings, or even emperors, north of the 
Alps. Their commerce embraced all Europe, with south- 
ern and central Asia; and, handling the money of all 
nations, they were the first modern bankers. The Bank 
of Venice dates from 1171 A. D. While the Eastern 
Empire was falling to pieces through its own weakness 
and the attacks of the Turks, Venice became sovereign 
of the Morea, with Cyprus, Crete, and many of the Greek 
islands. Her great rival was Genoa, which monopolized 



1 64 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

the commerce of the Black Sea, and this rivalry occasioned 
many wars. 

369. Florence is most celebrated of all the Italian re- 
publics for the freedom of her government and the genius 
of her people. The wealth of her great bankers, traders, 
and manufacturers of wool made many princes their debt- 
ors. After 1343 A. D., magistrates could be chosen only 
from the ''Arts," or trades-unions, and thus the indus- 
trial classes had supreme control of the government. 
Dan'te, the greatest poet of the Middle Ages, was a Flor- 
entine, but he spent most of his manhood in exile, owing 
to the deadly strife of Guelfs and Ghibellines. 

370. The chief power in Florence fell, during the 
fifteenth century, into the hands of the Med'ici, a family 
of wealthy citizens. Cosmo de Medici was the first who 
assumed to nominate candidates for public ofiice. His 

grandson, Loren'zo the Magnificent, pro- 
moted the revival of learning and the arts. 
He collected ancient gems and statues, which stimulated 
the genius of the young artists whom his liberal patron- 
age drew about him. His ascendency marks the most 
brilliant period of Florentine history. 

371. Meanwhile the German cities had also risen to 
great importance. Each was governed by a Council of 
its own choosing; and, free from the jealousies which 
often ruined the Italian cities, they formed leagues for the 
common defense. Their chief enemies were the knights 
and nobles, who lived by plunder, and liked nothing so 
well as to rob a merchant of his costly wares. The idea 
that a mere tradesman could have rights which they were 
bound to respect never occurred to these noble high- 
waymen. 

372. The League of the Rhine, A. D. 1255, numbered 
60 cities: that of Suabia, in 1376, was still larger. Several 
free cities of Upper Germany — now Switzerland — joined 



THE HAN SEA TIC LEAGUE. 165 

the Forest Cantons in a league, which at length secured 
the independence of the Swiss republics. Equally remark- 
able was the union of the Hanse towns of northern 
Germany, for the protection of their trade from pirates at 
sea and robbers on land. This league of merchants be- 
came so powerful that its fleets controlled the northern 
seas, and kings were proud of its alliance. Among its 
foreign factories were London and Bruges, where the Ger- 
man and Italian merchants met to exchange the gems, 
silks, and finer fabrics of Asia and the south for the fish, 
hemp, and timber of the north; for, to the slow navigation 
of those days, the voyage from the Mediterranean to the 
Baltic was too long to be made in a single summer. 

373. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the 
common people were gaining power in almost every 
country in Europe. Before this time, society, outside 
of the Church, had been chiefly made up of nobles, with 
their vassals and serfs. But the cities of Italy, Spain, and 
southern France had always kept something of the free- 
dom which they had enjoyed under the Romans; and, in 
Germany, England, and the Low Countries, the wealth of 
artisans and merchants was now so great as to make them 
important to the sovereigns, who were always in want of 
money. Accordingly, representatives of the cities began 
to be called to a share in the government of all these 
countries. 

Point out, on Map No. 9, Genoa. Venice, and her dominions. 
Florence. Milan. Avignon. Lubec. Hamburg. Bruges. London. 

Read Sismondi's History of tlie Italian Republics; Campbell's 
Life of Petrarch; Dante's ** Vita Nuova," translated by Norton; 
Longfellow's "Dante," with the Notes; Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo 
de' Medici. 




CHAPTER VIII. 

THE TARTAR CONQUESTS. 

URING the last Crusades, Asia 
and Eastern Europe suffered the 
most terrible devastations from the 
nomadic races (§ 2) which history 
records. The Turks, a brutal race 
of Tartars, had been, first, the hired 
soldiers and then the conquerors of 
the caliphs (§303). Their domin- 
ion, during the last half of the 
eleventh century, extended over the 
greater part of central and western 
Mongol Warrior. Asia. Another Tartar family con- 

quered India, and plundered its temples of an untold 
wealth of gold and jewels. 

375. But the greatest of these Scythian hordes were the 
Mongols, led by Tem'ujin, whose irresistible power gained 
for him the name of Gen'ghis Khan, or Universal Lord. 
Followed by an immense army, lie first undertook the con- 
quest of China. The Great Wall, built fourteen centuries 
before, to keep out the ancestors of the Mongols, proved 
to be no sufficient barrier; nor could the artificial thunders 
and lightnings, which were launched from the walls of 
Pekin — for the Chinese had long known the 

A. D. 1215. 

uses of gunpowder — prevent the capture of 
that capital and the conquest of northern China. Subse- 
quent wars made Genghis master of all central Asia, from 
the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea, a country which was 
then richer and more civilized than now. Hundreds of 
(166) 



MONGOLS AND TURKS. 167 

populous cities, stored with the treasures of art, learning, 
and industry, were destroyed; and five millions of human 
lives are said to have been sacrificed to this monster's 
thirst for dominion. 

376. The descendants of Genghis overthrew the feeble 
remnant of the Abbasside Empire at Bagdad, and extended 
their raids to the Adriatic, the borders of Germany, and 
the Polar Sea. Russia paid tribute to them 

for more than two hundred years ; and the ' '^^^ ''^ '' 

Mongol dominion was the most extensive that the world 
has ever seen. Ku'blai Khan, a grandson of Temujin, 
conquered southern China, and ruled all Asia, except 
Hindustan, Arabia, and Syria. He invited Christian mis- 
sionaries to his court at Pekin; and kept the famous 
Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, many years in his service. 

377. During the next century the Mongol Empire fell 
to pieces; but, about 1365 A. D., Ti'mour, or Tam'erlane, 
a descendant of Genghis, set out on a career of conquest 
which nearly reunited all his ancestor's dommions, with the 
addition of Hindustan. Pyramids of human heads marked 
the fields of his victories, and 100,000 captives were mur- 
dered at one time in cold blood, lest they should hinder 
his march ! In a battle with the Ottoman 

Turks, at Angora, in Asia Minor, Timour de- * ^'*°^* 

feated and captured Bajazet, their chief, whom he kept 
the rest of his life in an iron cage. Not only the Otto- 
mans, but the Roman Empire of the East, paid tribute to 
the conqueror. Ba'ber, a descendant of Timour, founded 
the great Mogul Empire in India. Its seat was at Delhi, 
and its magnificence has probably never been surpassed. 

378. The Ottoman Empire was founded, A. D. 
1288- 1326, by Oth'man, who fixed his capital at Brusa. 
One by one the provinces of the Eastern Empire, both in 
Asia and Europe, fell into his hands, until only Constanti- 
nople remained to the Caesars; and even within its walls 



1 68 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. 



the Turks had a colony. The first regular standing army 
in Europe was formed by Am'urath I. from Christian cap- 
tives taken in childhood, whom he trained 
. 13 o 13 9. ^^.^^^ ^^^ greatest strictness to be soldiers 
and Mohammedans. These Janizaries were the best sol- 
diery the world then knew, and were perfectly devoted to 
their sultan. 

379. The chief defenders of Europe were the Hungari- 
ans, but their king, Sig'ismund, was twice defeated by the 

Turks, and, at Nicopolis, his army of 100,000, 
' ^■'^ numbering the bravest knights in Christendom, 
was routed, or destroyed, by Bajazet (§ 377). Constanti- 
nople was four times besieged without effect, but at length, 
in 1453, Mohammed II. encamped, with an irresistible 
force, about its walls. His cannon soon effected a breach, 
the Janizaries rushed in, and, on the fifty-third day of the 
siege, the imperial city fell. Constantine XII., the last of 
the eastern Csesars, was slain in its defense. 

380. This great event filled all Europe with terror. The 
''Turks' Bell" rang at noon from every spire, calling all 
Christians to pray for the defeat of the infidel. The Hun- 
garians kept up a brave resistance; and their leader, 
Hunia'des, by a victory over Mohammed II., rescued the 
important fortress of Belgrade, commanding the Danube. 
The Pope's attempt to unite all the powers of Europe 
in a crusade failed. Venice carried on war fifteen years 

with the intruders on her own account; but at 
" ^'^^^' length made peace, and even entered upon a 
disgraceful traffic with the Turks for Christian slaves. 

Trace, on Maps No. 4 and 7, the conquests of Genghis Khan and 
his descendants. The progress of the Ottoman Turks. Point out 
Bagdad. Belgrade. 

The last chapters of Gibbon, and the first of Dyer's History of 
Modern Europe, are the best authorities. Read, also, Finlay's 
History of the Byzantine and Greek empires. 



CHAPTER IX. 

PLANTAGENETS IN ENGLAND. 




HE violence and misery of 
Stephen's reign (§ 335) were 
exchanged for comparative 
order and peace under the 
strong hand of Henry H., 
one of the greatest monarchs 
of his age. He was the first 
of the Engh'sh Plantagenets,-!^ 
a family who wore the crown 
331 years. By inheritance 
and by marriage, he was lord 
of more than half of France; 
and, though he did homage 
(§ 317, 350) to Louis VII. 
for his two great duchies 

Insurgent Peasants. and foUr COUnticS, llis pOAVer 

greatly exceeded that of his suzerain. 

382. Ireland was conquered by the arms of his brave 
barons, aided by the quarrels of its native chiefs; but 
for centuries it brought little more than a new title, with 
endless vexations to the English king. Henry had a 
seven years' contention with his former friend, Thomas a 
Becket, whom he had made Archbishop of Canterbury. 
It ended with the murder of Becket, at the altar of his 
own cathedral; but King Henry afterwards made a peni- 
tential pilgrimage to the tomb at Canterbury, where he 
humbly begged the monks to scourge him *'for the good 



*■ From planta gencs/a, a sprig of broom-corn, his father's badge. 
Hist.— 15. (169) 



lyo MEDI/EVAL HISTORY. 

of his soul." The same day, his armies defeated and 
captured the king of the Scots, and Henry joyfully accepted 
the victory as a token of St. Thomas' forgiveness. 

383. Henry's son, Richard I. (A. D. 1 189- 1 199), is 
best known to us as a crusader (§§340, 353)? for l^e paid 
little attention to his kingdom. His brother John (A. D. 
.1199-1216) lost all his French dominions through his crimes 
and cowardice; and the English barons, taking the defense 
of the kingdom into their own hands, forced him to grant 

the Great Charter {Magna C/iaiia), which secured 
' ^^'^' the foundations of justice and freedom. Pope 
Innocent HI. called upon all Christian princes to join in a 
crusade to detlirone John, and his late feudal chief, the king 
of France, gladly obeyed the summons. But John's sudden 
death put an end to the French invasion; for the barons 
who had opposed him bravely defended the rights of his 
son Henry, who was only nine years old. 

384. During the weak reign of Henry HI. (A. D. 12 16 

-1272), the barons had to assume the government again, 

and their great leader. Earl Simon de Montfort, summoned 

the first parliament in which citizens had part as well 

as nobles and bishops. In Avar with the barons. King 

Henry and his son were made prisoners; but 

A. D. 1265. . ' T- 1 ... , ^ ■, , 

the next year Earl Simon was defeated and 

slain at Evesham. 

385. Edward I. (A. D. 1272 -1307), was recalled from 
his crusade (§355) to assume the crown. He put an end 
to the bold robberies, and other disorders, which his 
father's weakness had encouraged; conquered Wales, and 
might have subdued Scotland, but for the brave resistance 
of Wallace and Bruce. While marching to meet the latter, 
who had been crowned as King Robert I., Edward died. 
He was an able and generous king, loving his people, 
and seeking their welfare by wise laws and a firm execu- 
tion of justice. 



THE BLACK PRINCE. 171 



386. Edward II. (A. D. 1307 -1327), was the exact 
opposite of his father — weak, coAvardly, and 

vicious. His defeat by Bruce, at Bannockburn, ' '"'''*■ 

secured the independence of Scotland. His fondness for 
worthless favorites offended the barons, who joined his 
French queen, Isabella, in dethroning him. He was after- 
wards murdered by the (jueen's orders. 

387. His son, Edward III. (A. D. 1327-1377), was a 
warlike and powerful king. The very slight claim, which 
he had inherited from his mother, to the crown of France, 
tempted him to invade that country; and he 

gained a decisive victory over king Philip VI. 
at Cre'cy. His eldest son, a youth of 16 years, greatly 
distinguished himself in the battle. Finding among the 
slain the body of the blind old king of Bohemia, Prince 
Edward adopted his motto, "I serve," and the black armor, 
from which he became known as the "Black Prince." 

388. King Edward followed up his victory by the siege 
and capture of Calais, which remained for 200 years an 
English port, valuable for purposes of trade, and as an 
ever open door to France. It is said that when Calais 
had been starved into surrender, King Edward demanded 
the lives of six chief citizens as a ransom for the rest. 
Freely offering themselves, six of the principal 

men repaired to his camp, with ropes around 
their necks, bearing the keys of the city, and were ordered 
to execution. But Queen Philip'pa had just arrived from 
England to render account of her own successful manage- 
ment of the war with the Scots. She fell on her knees 
and begged, as her reward, the lives of these brave men. 
The king could not refuse her ; and, after entertaining 
them most generously, she sent them back to their families 
loaded with gifts. 

389. In a subsequent war. King John was defeated and 
made prisoner, at Poitiers, A. D. 1356, by a far inferior 



172 MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 

force under the Black Prince. By the Treaty of Bretigny he 
engaged to pay an immense sum of money for his ransom; 
but the king of England at the same time renounced his 
claims to the French crown, with all the fiefs of William 
and Geoffrey (§350). He kept Aquitaine, which was made 
an almost independent sovereignty for Prince Edward. 

390. The Black Prince died a year before his father; 
and his son, Richard II., became king in 1377. The wars 
had brought intolerable suffering to the poor people of both 
countries; and peasant insurrections, called in France the 
Jacquerie^ in England, Wat Tyler's rebellion, alarmed the 

rulincj classes. One hundred thousand armed 

A 1) i^Si. 

insurgents marched upon London, plundering 
and murdering those who opposed them. Richard met 
the mob with great coolness, and disarmed their rage by 
promising all they asked. He did, indeed, try to secure 
freedom for the serfs; but, in so doing, he offended the 
nobles, without gaining any thing for the people. Richard 
was unable to restrain the ambition of his three uncles, 
who quarreled for the chief power; and he made an 
enemy of his cousin, Henry of Lancaster. Returning from 
exile upon his father's death, Henry was joined by a great 
army, including most of the royal forces. With consent 
of parliament he assumed the crown, and put Richard in 
prison, where he died, A. D. 1399. 

391. During this reign, Wic'liffe preached against the 
abuses which had crept into the church. Though among 
the most learned of Oxford doctors, he spoke and wrote 
a language which the poor people could understand. His 
greatest work was a translation of the Bible into their 
common tongue. He was bitterly opposed, but he had a 
powerful friend in John of Gaunt, the father of Henry of 
Lancaster. After his death, his bones were burned as those 
of a heretic, and his ashes were thrown into the Avon; but 
his teachings were already the property of the world. 



THE MAID OF ORLEANS. 173 

392. The House of Lancaster. — Henry IV. (A. D. 
1399- 1413), tried to please the clergy by persecuting the 
Lollards y or followers of Wicliffe; but the insecurity of his 
title was shown by three formidable insurrections. His 
son, Henry V. (A. D. 1413-1422), was more popular. 
Already as prince he had contributed much to the victory 
at Shrewsbury, by which the rebellion of the Percies was 
overthrown; but in times of peace he seemed wholly given 
up to gay and dissolute company. Some have thought 
that this was merely an artifice to disarm his father's 
suspicion; for Henry IV. was haunted by the fear that his 
son might treat him as he himself had treated Richard. 

393- Upon the king's death, however, Henry V. dis- 
missed all his wild companions, called about him his 
father's best counselors, and bestowed especial favor upon 
one who had been honest enough to rebuke his own 
misconduct. He soon afterwards prepared for war with 
France, whose wretched condition, under a crazy king, a 
Avicked queen, and recklessly selfish nobles, made conquest 
seem an easy matter. At the field of iVgincourt, 



A. D. 



1415- 



Henry's brave yeomanry gained a victory over 

four times their number of French. The treaty of Troyes 

made Henry regent of France during the life of Charles 

VI., whose daughter he was to marry, and upon whose 

death he was to succeed to the crown. Two years later, 

Henry V. and his infant son entered Paris in triumph. 

But the triumph did not last long. The two 

kings died in one year, and the crowns of 

France and England rested upon the baby brow of Henry 

VI., who during his life-time of 50 years never became, 

in intellect, more than a feeble child. 

394. For six years the English ruled France, the heir 
to the crown having only a few cities south of the Loire. 
In 1428 came a wonderful change of fortune. Jo'an of 
Arc, a simple peasant girl, believed herself inspired of 



174 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

heaven to rescue France. With her consecrated banner 
she appeared at the head of the dauphin's army, and 
excited such hopes in the French, or such terror in the 
Enghsh, that the latter broke up their camp and withdrew 
from Orleans, which they had nearly taken. She then 
conducted the dauphin to Rheims, where he 
A. D. 1429. ^^^^ crowned; and this event did much to turn 
the hearts of the French toward their native king. To 
the disgrace of Charles VII. and the English chiefs, the 
"Maid of Orleans," having been taken prisoner, was con- 
demned and burnt as a witch. 

395. From amidst the smoke and flame of her execution, 
Joan declared that God's vengeance would pursue the 
English into their own land. Her prophecy was fulfilled. 
Step by step they were driven from all their conquests in 
France; while the incapacity of their king and the quarrels 
of his ministers left England a prey to the worst disorders. 
Henry married Margaret of Anjou, a brave and accom- 
plished princess, but her haughty spirit offended a pow- 
erful party among the English nobles. 

396. The Duke of York now remembered that he was 
descended from Edward III. by an elder line than the 
king (see Table, p. 329). Thence arose the "Wars of the 
Roses," so called because the Yorkists wore a white rose, 
and the Lancastrians a red one as their badge. The Duke 
of York was slain in the battle of Wakefield; but his 
claim to the crown was inherited by his eldest son, who, 
in 1 46 1, was acknowledged as King Edward IV. Henry 
VI. found a more peaceful abode in the Tower. 

397. House of York. — Among the foremost figures 
of that time is the Earl of Warwick, who was called the 
"Kingmaker." His estates covered many miles of territory; 
his armed followers were a mighty host; and victory leaned 
to either side where he declared himself. He aided largely 
in the elevation of the House of York, but, being griev- 



THE WARS OF THE ROSES. ' 175 



oiisly offended by Edward IV., he transferred his allegiance 
to Henry VI., whom he released from prison, while Edward 
fled beyond the sea. But Edward IV. returned, and the 
great earl was slain at Barnet. Young Edward of Lan- 
caster was defeated and basely murdered at 
Tewkesbury, and his unhappy father died a ' ' ''*^'' 

few days later in prison. The reign of Edward IV. (A. D. 
1461 -1483) is signalized by the introduction of printing 
into England by William Caxton. 

398. Edward V. was but thirteen years old at his father's 
death. His uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester, having 
gained possession of the young king and his brother, caused 
them to be murdered in the Tower, and made himself 
King Richard III. Richard was, undoubtedly, the ablest 
of his family; and though he had "waded 

through slaughter to a throne," he ruled • ^4 o m s- 

wisely and well. But the nobles were horrified by his 
crimes, and called for Henry Tu'dor, a descendant of 
the House of Lancaster, who had been living in exile 
(see Table p. 329). 

399. Henry landed in England with a small army, which 
was joined by half of Richard's forces, and, 

in the Batde of Bosworth, gained a complete 

victory. King Richard was slain; his crown, found upon 

a thorn-bush, was placed on the head of the conqueror, 

who was hailed with the cry, "God save King Henry the 

Seventh!" 

The Wars of the Roses had lasted 30 years. By exter- 
minating many noble families, they had undermined the 
feudal system, which, in England, may be said to have 
ended with the Plantagenets. With the accession of the 
Tudors, modern history begins. 

Read Green's "Short History," Chapter v, and Chapter vi, Sec- 
tions 1-3. For illustration, read Shakes^^eare's Henry IV., V., VI., 
and Richaid HI.; and Bulwer's "Last of the Barons." 



CHAPTER X. 



HOUSE OF CAPET IN FRANCE. 




Louis XI. and his Barber. 



GUIS VI. (A. D. 1108-1137) 
gave the first communal privi- 
leges to French towns — in this 
and other ways lessening the 
power of his great vassals and 
raising up a class of industri- 
ous citizens between nobles and 
serfs. His son, Louis VII. 
(1137 — 1180), granted many 
more of these charters, and 
founded new cities for the re- 
ception of serfs who escaped 
from their masters. By marry- 
ing the heiress of Aquitaine, 
Louis annexed that great terri- 
tory to the crown (see Map 4), but the misconduct of 
the queen led him to part with her and her lands, which 
were soon afterward transferred to Henry II. of England 
(§381). A life-long rivalry grew from this. Louis not 
only sheltered the exiled archbishop Becket (J5 382), but 
even aided Queen El'eanor and her sons in their rebellion 
against Henry. 

401. Philip II. Augustus (A. D. 1 180- 1223) curbed 
the great nobles by his wise management. In his reign 
Pope Innocent III. declared a crusade against Ray'mond, 
Count of Toulouse, for having sheltered his own subjects, 
the Albigenses, whose religious belief differed from that 
of the Roman Church. Even their enemies admitted that 
(176) 



REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS. 177 

their religion made them obedient to all just laws, and 
that they were the most industrious, orderly, and valuable 
members of any community. The king took little notice 
of the contest; but many of his vassals, foremost of whom 
was Simon de Montfort, father of the great English earl 
(§ 384), hastened to join the crusade. 

402. The war raged more than twenty years. Towns, 
villages, and fertile fields — the most prosperous region in 
Europe — were laid waste; the songs of the troubadours 
(^^427) ceased; and their very language was smitten with 
decay. The war went on, through the short reign of 
Louis VIII. (1223- 1226), and ended in that of his son, 
by the addition of all Count Raymond's dominions, either 
by direct surrender or by marriage, to the royal family. 
France thus became a greater maritime power; for before 
this it had not reached the Mediterranean. 

403. The crusades of the good King Louis IX. (A. D. 
1226- 1270) have been mentioned (§§ 354, 355). His 
reign in France was marked by a cessation of feudal vio- 
lence; the nobles no longer had power of life and death 
over their serfs; but uniform laws were enforced through- 
out the kingdom. On certain days all men might bring 
their complaints to the king, who sat under a tree in 
the forest of Vincennes, ready to do justice and redress 
wrongs, without the delay incident to the best of courts. 
Not content with doing justly himself, Louis restored all 
lands that had been wrongfully seized by his father and 
grandfather. Even foreign princes sometimes referred their 
causes to him; in England he helped to reconcile Henry 
HI. with his barons (§ 384). 

404. Philip III. inherited a great tract of land, now in 
the south of France, which brought him in contact with 
the neighboring princes of Spain and Italy. It happened 
that his uncle, Charles of Anjou, was engaged in a fierce 
rivalry with the king of Aragon for the possession of 



178 MEDLI'lVAL HlSrORV. 



Sicily; and this led to the first long foreign war in which 
France was ever engaged. It was during this war that 
the Sicihan Vespers occurred (^ 366). Philip IV. (A. D. 
1285- 1314) is called t/ie Fair, but the term applies to his 
person, and not to his conduct. His ambitious schemes 
made him always in want of money, which he extorted 
in turn from Jews, abbots, Flemish merchants, and, finally, 
from the Knights Templars (§360). Pope Clement V., 
having removed his court from Rome to Avignon, was 
Philip's obedient tool. By their joint orders the Grand 
Master, Jacques de Mo'lay, was burnt to death. The 
order of Templars was dissolved in France, and, though 
their lands and fortresses were given to the Knights of 
St. John, their immense wealth in gold went into the 
coffers of the king. 

405. Philip's three sons, Louis X., Philip V., and 
Charles IV., all succeeded him within fourteen years, 
A. D. 13 14- 1328. The infant son of Louis died when 
only four days old. His brothers left only daughters. 

The ancient custom of the Franks had lately 
been made a law, excluding women from the 
throne. The crown, therefore, passed to Philip of Valois 
(A. D. 1328- 1350), a grandson of Philip III. 

406. House of Valois. — The rival claims of Edward 
HI., the battles of Crecy and Poitiers, and the fall of 
Calais have already been described (§§387-389). The 

wars w^ere interrupted by the Black Death, 
■ ^^^ ^^^'" a frightful pestilence, which, sweeping over 
Europe, destroyed, in three years, nearly half the popu- 
lation. The truce gave leisure to thousands of hireling 
soldiers, who roamed over the country, robbing and mur- 
dering at their will. Even the pope had to ransom him- 
self with 40,000 crowns. The poor peasants, driven to 
desperation by famine, pestilence, and manifold oppres- 
sions, turned upon their masters and, in some instances, 



FRANCE UNDER CHARLES VI . 1 79 

demolished castles and massacred their inhabitants. Their 
ignorant warfare was, of course, speedily i)ut down, and 
they were hunted to death like wild beasts. 

407. King John (A. D. 1350- 1364) was four years a 
prisoner, while, in addition to other miseries, Charles the 
Bad of Navarre, another claimant to the French crown, 
made much mischief in the kingdom. Charles V. (1364- 
1380) was called the ]Vis€\—\\\^ wisdom had been learned 
in a hard school. Both as regent during his father's 
captivity, and afterwards as king, he managed so wisely 
that, though he seldom took the field in person, his great 
captains drove the English from all their conquests. 

408. The kingdoms of England and France were placed, 
after his death, in very similar circumstances: Richard II., 
in the one (§390), and Charles VI. (A. D. 1380-1422), 
in the other, were minors — each at the mercy of three 
powerful uncles, who used the public treasures to help their 
own ambidon. In Naples, the House of Anjou (g 404) 
had ended in Queen Toan'na, who, havim; no 

A. D i-'Si 

children, adopted Louis, uncle of Charles VI., 
as her heir. This adoption cost France more than a hun- 
dred years of war. The Duke of Anjou, seizing all the 
gold he could lay his hands on, marched into Italy, where 
he and most of his army died of the plague. 

409. The princes who stayed at home, made still more 
trouble. The Duke of Burgundy married the heiress of 
Flanders, and thus became richer than any sovereign 
prince in Europe. His son murdered his cousin, the duke 
of Orleans, and, a few years later, was himself murdered 
by a servant of his victim. Believing that the dauphin, 
who saw the crime, had planned, or at least permitted it, 
the new duke of Burgundy joined the English who had 
invaded the country (§393). The king had now become 
a hopeless maniac. Henry V., of England, married his 
daughter, and was proclaimed regent of France. But the 



i8o MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

crazy king and his son-in-law died within eight weeks of 
each other, A. D. 1422. 

410. The infant son of Henry and Catherine of France 
was crowned at Paris, while the true heir to the crown 
was so poor that he is said to have been arrested by a 
shoemaker, whose bill he could not pay. His fortunes 
were retrieved by the interposition of Joan of Arc (§ 394). 
Dissensions among the English saved France. In spite 
of his own indolence, Charles VH. (A. D. 1422-1461) 
regained all that himself and his father had lost, and 
only Calais remained to the English of all their conquests 
in France. 

411. Louis XI. (A. D. 1461-1483), son of Charles 
VIL, was a far abler man than his father, but his fals- 
ity of character made him one of the most contemptible 
figures in history. While dauphin, having incurred his 
father's displeasure, he took refuge with Philip the Good, 
duke of Burgundy, who received him with great gener- 
osity. Louis proved his gratitude by poisoning the mind 
of the duke's only son with unfilial suspicions, and tam- 
pering with his servants. He and Charles of Burgundy 
were ever afterwards enemies and rivals. 

412. The great effort of Louis' reign, was to exalt the 
power of the crown by weakening the Church and the 
nobles. His great vassals joined against him in a "League 
of the Public Weal," which had, at one time, 100,000 
men on foot. Louis dissolved this force more by gold 
than steel. He stirred up rebellions in the Flemish cities, 
and once was caught in the trap which he had set, 
being imprisoned, by Charles, in the tower of Peronne. 

413. Charles the Bold, as he is called, having made 
himself master of all the Netherlands, by purchase or 
inheritance, wished to revive the "Middle Kingdom" of 
Lothaire (see Map No. 7, and § 314, note). The em- 
peror, Frederic HI., promised to crown him at Treves, 



LAST DA YS OF LOUIS XL i8i 

but, changing his mind, stole away in the night, leaving 
Charles with his imconsecrated crown. Louis stirred the 
Swiss to attack Charles, who was defeated by 
them at Granson and Morat, and shortly after- 
wards slain at Nancy, in a battle wdth the duke of Lor- 
raine. The king of France seized his duchy of Burgundy; 
but the rich inheritance of the Netherlands passed, with 
the hand of the young duchess Mary, to Maximil'ian of 
Austria. 

414. Louis suffered the natural consequences of a life 
of fraud in the wretched suspicions which haunted his 
last years. He shut himself in a lonely castle and ordered 
his archers to shoot at every living thing that approached. 
Even his own children were excluded; his constant com- 
panions were Oliver le Daim, barber and hangman, and 
James Coettier, astrologer and physician. The latter gov- 
erned Louis through his superstition by declaring that his 
own death would shortly precede that of the king. Never 
was man's health more cared for than that of this wily 
doctor. But at length the wretched king died, leaving 
his only son, at the age of fourteen, deformed in body 
and feeble in mind. The reign of Charles VIIL (A. D. 
1483 -1498) belongs, properly, to modern history. 

Point out, on Maps No, 7 and ii, Granson, Morat, Crecy, Poitiers, 
Calais. The duchy of Burgundy. The Netherlands (named, §512, 
note ) . 

Read Michelet's History of France, Kirk's Chsrles the Bold, and 
Scott's Quentin Durward. 



CHAPTER XI. 



THE EMPIRE AND THE CHURCH. 




,HE history of Germany during 
the fourteenth and fifteenth 
centuries is a story of turbu- 
lence and misrule (see § 363). 
A quarrel, over the choice of 
an emperor, occasioned a dis- 
tracting civil war, A. D. 13 14- 
1328. Most of the nobles 
chose PYederic of Austria; but 
the primate and the people of 
the great towns preferred Louis 
of Bavaria, who at length took 
his rival prisoner at the battle 
of M till 1 dor f, and reigned, 
though not in peace, until 1347. 

416. His successor, Charles IV., settled the rank and 
privileges of the seven Electors, whose duty it was to 
choose the emperors and assist at their coronation. They 
were the three archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, 
and four lay-princes: the king of Bohemia, the duke of 
Saxony, the margrave of Brandenburg, and the count- 
palatine of the Rhine. Until he was crowned at Rome, 
the chosen prince bore only the title of Emperor-<"/<rr/. 
His successor was usually chosen during his life-time, and 
was called King of the Romans. 

417. Wenceslaus (A. I). 1378-1400), son of Charles, 
cared only for his kingdom of Bohemia, and neglected his 
imperial duties, spending much of his time, moreover, in 

(182) 



COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE. 183 



drunken revelings. At length, in 1400, the electors de- 
posed him and gave the crown to Count Ru'pert of the 
Rhine (A. 1). 1400- 1410), an energetic and able ruler 
who would have done much for Germany if his reign had 
been long enough. 

418. Sigismund (A. D. 1410-1438), brother of Wences- 
laus, was next chosen. His first care was to call together 
a general council for the reformation of the Church — a 
duty which had been considered as devolving on the 
emperors ever since Constantine convened the Council of 
Nice (§ 267). The free city of Constance was appointed 
for the meeting; and thither came 18,000 clergymen, in- 
cluding patriarchs and bishops; hundreds of learned men 
from the universities; sovereign princes, or their embassa- 
dors; last of all, Pope John XXIII. and the Emperor 
Sigismund. 

419. The occasion was serious enough to justify the 
imposing display. Three popes were claiming obedience 
in France, Spain, and Italy: the damaging truths which 
they told of each other were undermining men's reverence 
for the Church ; and several great reformers, especially in 
England and Bohemia, were preaching boldly against the 
evil lives of the priesthood. Though the Council had 
come together for purposes of reform, among 

its first decisive acts was to burn a reformer. ' ' ^^^^' 
John Huss, one of the great doctors of the University of 
Prague, was summoned to answer for his teachings, and 
the imperial word of Sigismund was pledged for his safe 
return. He was tried and condemned as a heretic; and 
chose death rather than to deny what he believed to be 
the truth. The princes and prelates who stood around 
the emperor, saw a deep flush of shame overspread his 
face when the sentence was read. Huss was burnt at the 
stake ; and his friend and fellow-professor, Jerome of 
Prague, suffered the same fate within a year. 



1 84 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

420. When the news reached Bohemia, a civil war broke 
out. Prague, the capital, was taken by the Hussites, and 
monks were every-where put to death in revenge for the 
two martyrs. The popular fury became fiercer when, by 
the death of Wenceslaus in 1419 A. D. (§ 417), the guilty 
Sigismund became king of Bohemia. The war raged 
nearly twenty years; and, though all the force of the 
empire was exerted against the insurgents, Sigismund only 
gained possession of his kingdom a few months before his 
death. 

421. The Council of Constance deposed all three of the 
rival popes (§419) and elected Ot'to Colon'na, a better 
man than any of them, but who did little to realize the 
needed reforms. Another council met at Basle, in 1431, 
and carried on the work begun at Constance. It declared 
that the voice of the whole Church, in general council, 
was of supreme authority, and provided for such assemblies 
at regular intervals. 

422. Pope Euge'nius IV., finding that he could not man- 
age the council at Basle, summoned a rival one at Ferrara, 
where very important visitors were received. These were 
John Palaeol'ogus, emperor of the East, and the patriarch 
of the Greek Church, with a train of courtiers and clergy. 
It may be remembered (§§ 294, 306) that the eastern and 
western churches had separated upon the question of 
image-worship; and they had since been more widely 
parted by a difference of belief. The eastern Ccesar, now 
finding that he could not stand alone against the Turks 
(§§ 340, 378), offered to give up the points in dispute 
and admit the supremacy of the pope, on condition that 
the European princes would come to his aid. The bargain 
was signed and sealed, but the authorities at Constanti- 
nople refused to ratify it; and fifteen years later the eastern 
empire was overthrown. 

423. Upon the death of Sigismund, the crown of the 



REIGN OF FREDERIC III. 185 

western empire was bestowed upon Albert of Austria, his 
son-in-law, and, though still elective and often contested, 
it continued to be worn by the dukes of Austria for more 
than three centuries. 

424. Frederic III. reigned fifty-three years (A. D. 1440- 
1493), but his vacillating character afforded few acts worth 
telling. He secured the marriage of his son Maximilian 
with the young duchess Mary of Burgundy (§ 413), which 
made him lord of her rich inheritance in the Netherlands. 
Mary died young; but, as regent for his son Philip, Max- 
imilian still ruled the Low Countries, and Philip's marriage 
with the heiress of Spain made the Hapsburgs the most 
powerful family in Europe. 

Point out, on Map No. 9, the dominions of the Seven Electors. 
Prague. Constance. Basle. Ferrara. 

Read Menzel's History of Germany, Vol. II., and the Introduction 
to Dyer's Modern Europe. 



Hist. — 16. 



CHAPTER XII. 

LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE. 




URING the rude ages, knowledge 
of books belonged only to priests 
and monks. Some of these were 
wonders of learning, and a few 
were noted teachers. Such were 
the "Venerable Bede," who, 
^^^ early in the eighth century, drew 

lli if K ^^^ hundred English youth about 

him at J arrow, and instructed 
them in all the learning of the 
time; Ab'elard, a bold and brill- 
iant thinker, whose disciples 
were numbered by thousands, 
but whose writings were con- 
demned by the Church; Albert 
the Great and Thomas Aqui'nas, 
the most learned of theologians; 
and Roger Ba'con, whose lec- 
tures attracted 30,000 youth to Oxford, but whose experi- 
ments in physical science caused him to be imprisoned as 
a sorcerer. 

426. Latin was still the universal language of the 
learned; so that scholars from the remotest corners of 
Europe listened to the same teachers at the great schools 
of Bologna, Paris, and Oxford. Most of them traveled 
thither on foot, and begged their way as they went. Pov- 
erty was considered no disgrace, when it was wiUingly 
(186) 



A Minnesinger. 



TROUBADOURS AND TROUVERES. 187 

embraced for the sake of the dearer riches of the mind. 
Among the privileges granted to students of colleges, by 
kings and emperors, was a license to obtain their living 
by beggary ! Acquaintance with the great Arabic scholars 
led to new zeal for learning after the crusades, and new 
schools sprang up at Padua, Toulouse, Montpellier, and 
elsewhere. During the twelfth century an intense zeal for 
the study of Roman law became manifest, especially in 
Italy. This may be accounted for by the growth of free- 
dom in the cities (§ 363) during the wars of the Lombard 
League (§ 364) with the German emperors. Subjects of 
despotic governments have to be content with the will of 
their rulers; but free citizens require their judges to give 
reasons for their decisions, drawn either from universal 
princij^les of justice, or from ancient law; and hence a 
demand for a^ class of men learned in the laws, who could 
instruct common citizens concerning their rights. 

427. At the same time most of the languages of Europe 
began to settle into their present forms. Troubadours sang 
songs of love and war in the Provencal tongue; trouveres 
of northern France wrote endless tales of chivalry in the 
popular Latin spoken by Franks and Northmen — whence 
such tales are still called romances. The earliest poem in 
the Spanish language rehearses the brave deeds of the 
Cid Ruy Diaz, who died A. D. 1099. Modern Italian 
first appears in the poems of Frederic II. and his chancel- 
lor, Peter de Vin'ea. Later, the great Florentine, Dan'te, 
described his visions of hell, purgatory, and paradise in 
the common speech of Italy. His countrymen, Pe'trarch 
and Boccac'cio, perfected the Tuscan dialect, the one in 
his sonnets, the other in his prose tales. 

428. The northern nations, which had never been con- 
quered by the Romans, kept their own languages, but 
enriched them with many Roman words. The songs of 
the troubadours had their echoes in German castles : or. 



1 88 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

perhaps we should rather say that the same poetical im- 
pulse spread like a wave over all Europe in the thirteenth 
century, much as the religious and knightly impulse of 
the crusades spread over it in the eleventh; at any rate, 
the great German epic poem of the Nibelungen assumed 
its present form about 1210, and a swarm of minnesingers 
filled Germany with their songs of love. Old English, as 
written by King Alfred and the monkish historians, be- 
came mingled with the romance of the Norman conquer- 
ors, making the modern English which first appears in the 
travels of Sir John Man'deville, the sermons of Wicliffe, 
and the poems of Chaucer. 

429. The progress of the Turks in conquering the East- 
ern Empire, drove many learned men to take refuge in 
Italy, and the manuscripts which they brought excited 
fresh zeal for the records of antiquity. Petrarch was 
among the greatest promoters of the revival of Learning. 
He spent many years in searching the dusty libraries of 
convents for lost works of the Greek and Roman writers, 
which he copied with his own hand. It was more than 
a hundred years later that Lorenzo de' Medici (§ 370), 
who was a poet and scholar, not less than a statesman, 
gave a still greater impulse both to the literature and art 
of Florence. 

Find, on Maps No. 4 and 10, the cities distinguished by the three 
great Universities of the Middle Ages. 

Read Hallam's " Literature of Europe ; " Fauriel's History of 
Provencal Poetry, translated by Adler ; Taylor's Survey of German 
Poetry ; Campbell's Life of Petrarch ; Morley's English Writers, 
before and after Chaucer, 



CHAPTER XIII. 



DAWN OF THE MODERN ERA. 




HE two centuries following the 
Crusades were full of changes. 
A rich commercial class sprang 
up, whose travels and enterprises 
drew the north and the south, 
the east and the west, into closer 
acquaintance. Three arts, bor- 
rowed from the remote east, oc- 
casioned immense revolutions in 
Europe. The first was the manu- 
facture of gunpowder, which put 
an end to feudal power and the 
supremacy of armed knights. 
Hitherto, the castle on the cliff, 
as long as food and water held 
out, could withstand all attacks 
of common citizens, while a single 
Costumes of XV. Century, horseman, cucascd in steel, could 

put to flight a hundred unarmed peasants. Gunpowder 

went far to equalize ranks. 

431. The inventions of paper and printing did still more 
to equalize knowledge. So long as the only books w^ere 
copied with the pen on costly parchment, learning was for 
those who could devote life or fortune to its pursuit. 
Paper was made from cotton, at Samarcand, as early as 
the seventh century; but cotton was then rare and costly 
in Europe, and it was six hundred years later that linen 
rags were found to answer the same purpose. Printing 
from solid blocks had long been practiced in China; but, 

(189) 



I90 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

in 1438 A. D., a Dutch mechanic, named Kos'ter, in- 
vented movable types of wood; and, six years later, John 
Gutenberg, of Mentz, cut similar types from metal, with 
"which he printed the first edition of the Bible. The new 
art was eagerly adopted in England, France, Italy, and 
Spain, and books were soon within the reach of the 
common people. 

432. During the fifteenth century most of the great 
duchies and counties became absorbed into centralized 
monarchies. The seventeen provinces which were called 
collectively the ''Low Countries," or Netherlands, were 
united under the dukes of Burgundy. The marriage of 
Charles VIII. (§ 414) with the Duchess Anne of Brittany, 
annexed the last of the great fiefs to the crown of France. 
The Wars of the Roses (§§ 396-399) had destroyed feud- 
alism in England. Many noble families had become ex- 
tinct, and their lands were bought, in some instances, by 
merchants — marking a great rise of the industrious classes 
into honor and dignity. 

433. The kingdom of Naples was reunited with that of 
Sicily and Aragon (§366) under Alfonso V. His suc- 
cessor added the crown of Navarre to those of his other 
dominions; and all Spain soon afterwards became consoli- 
dated by the marriage of Fer'dinand of Aragon with Isa- 
bel'la of Castile and Leon, and by their joint conquest of 
the Moors in the south. These brave and brilliant people 
had maintained a Mohammedan empire in Spain for nearly 
eight hundred years, and in arts and learning they far 
surpassed their conquerors. Their cities were adorned with 
the most beautiful buildings in Europe, but their power 
had long been declining. In 1492, their capital, Granada, 
was taken by Ferdinand and Isabella, and the great penin- 
sula was again under Christian rule. 

434. The greatness and goodness of Isabella were sul- 
lied by cruel bigotry. The Spanish Inquisition, a secret 



DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 191 

court for the punishment of heretics and dissenters, was 
estabhshed early in her reign. On the suspicion of heresy, 
any man might be brought before the black-hooded in(piis- 
itors, who sat in a dark chamber underground. He had 
no opportunity for defense ; he did not see the faces of 
his judges, nor know the special acts of which he was 
accused; and rarely, if ever, did he again see the light of 
day. Another cruel act was the exile of the Jews, who 
had hitherto been better treated in Spain than in any other 
country of Europe, and were the most enlightened and 
useful of her subjects. Thousands died from the hardships 
of the voyages; those who survived, enriched other lands 
by their skill and industry, and the fatal decline of Spain 
began at the proudest moment of her triumph. 

435- A.ge of Discoveries. — The greatest glory of 
Isabella is connected with the discovery of America. The 
Portuguese had been first to explore the Atlantic to the 
southward, and find a sea-route to India by 
passing the Cape of Good Hope. The rich ' ^^ ''' 

Indian traffic, as carried on by Alexandria and the Red 
Sea, had afforded much of the wealth of Venice. It was 
now diverted into another channel, and the great Republic 
began to decline. The Portuguese established a great com- 
mercial empire in India, of which ''Goa the Golden," on 
the western coast, was the capital. 

436. The yet bolder enterprise of Chris'topher ColimV- 
bus, with the aid of Queen Isabella, resulted in the open- 
ing of a New Woi'ld to the knowledge of Eu- 
ropeans. In his first and second voyages, Co- 
lumbus visited what we know as the West India Islands ; 
in his third, he touched the mainland of South America, 
near the mouth of the Orinoco, 1498. One year before, 
Sebas'tian Cab'ot, a Venetian in the service of Henry VII. 
of England (§ 399), had explored the North American 
coast from Hudson to Chesapeake Bay. The Portuguese 



192 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

Cabral', in 1500, took possession of Brazil in the name of 
his king. 

437. The great Columbus died in poverty in the country 
which he had enriched by his discoveries. His son, as 
viceroy of the New World, conquered and colonized Cuba. 
Other Spaniards followed, moved by the same romantic 
spirit of adventure that had been nourished by the wars 
against the Moors. Vas'co Nu'nez de Balbo'a, in 15 13, 
ascended the mountains of the Isthmus, and, first of 
Europeans, looked westward over the waters of the Pacific. 
Magel'lan, in 1520, passed the southern-most point of the 
American continent, crossed the Pacific, and discovered 
the islands afterwards called Philippine, from Philip II. of 
Spain, He was killed on one of these islands, but his 
squadron completed the first circumnavigation of the globe. 

438. Most of the natives of the New World were sav- 
ages, living by hunting and fishing, or upon the spontane- 
ous products of the soil. They were inclined to be 
friendly, and, in their awe of superior power, regarded the 
white men as messengers from heaven; but the cruelty and 
deceit of the Spaniards soon changed their minds. Two 
great empires, Mexico and Peru, had gained a high degree 
of civilization. Their cities were guarded by a well-ordered 
police; their magnificent temples were adorned with ex- 
quisite carvings in stone and wood, and their markets were 
filled with delicate and costly merchandise. By the pos- 
session of fire-arms and horses, two Spanish adventurers, 

Cor'tez in Mexico and Pizar'ro in Peru, were 

A. D. 1519-1536. , - . . , 

able to conquer these two empires with mere 
handfuls of European troops. To satisfy the Spanish thirst 
for gold, the natives were driven to work the mines, and 
it is said that, in Peru, four-fifths of the laborers perished 
in these unaccustomed toils. The good priest Las Castas 
made every effort to relieve their sufferings. When a brill- 
iant young student of the University of Salamanca, he had 



SPANISH EXPLORERS. 193 

accompanied the second expedition of Columbus ; and his 
heart was so touched by the helplessness and heathenism 
of the natives, that he renounced all ambition and chose a 
life of poverty, in order to elevate and help them. His 
fifty years of devoted effort were not in vain, though fevv 
of his countrymen shared his humane spirit. Among other 
plans, he procured the introduction of Africans, who seemed 
better able to endure the hardships of the mines and the 
plantations; but he lived to pronounce the scheme a failure, 
for it enslaved one race without rescuing the other. 

439. Other Spaniards explored the western coasts of 
North America, and laid the humble founda- 
tion of our modern California. Fer'dinand 
de So'to, from the eastward, penetrated to the Mississippi, 
in 1539, and explored the basin of the Arkansas; but he 
died in the Avilderness, leaving no monument of his discov- 
eries. The French were, very early, attracted to the fish- 
eries of Newfoundland, but they were among the last to 
make settlements in the New World. 

The unveiling of this great continent, with its wonderful 
products and its immeasurable wealth, had a great effect 
in arousing the mind of Europe to new enterprise, and 
was among the chief causes that led to the Modern Era. 

Point out the several Christian and Moorish kingdoms in Spain. 
The different commercial routes between Europe and Asia. Trace 
the voyages of Columbus, Cabot, Balboa, Magellan. Point out 
Mexico and Peru. 

Read Prescott's History of Ferdinand and Isabella, Conquest of 
Mexico, and Conquest of Peru; Irving's Life of Columbus. 



Hist 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. — BOOK II. 



Section 




284 


283, 


285 




285 


286- 


-288 


288, 


289 




290 




291 


292- 


-294 




295 


296- 


-298 




299 



1. What are the divisions of Mediaeval History? 

2. What had the northern barbarians to do with the 

changes which introduced the Dark Ages? 

3. What was the power of the Church in the Dark Ages ? 

4. Where were the various tribes, A. D. 500? 

5. What nations successively governed Italy? 

6. What non-German races in Europe ? 

7. What was the extent of the Eastern Empire ? 

8. Describe the reign of Justinian; of Heraclius ; of 

Leo III. 

9. The Macedonian Dynasty. 

10. Tell the story of Mohammed. 

11. Of his successors. 

12. Describe their invasions of Spain and France; their 

purpose and results. 300 — 302 

13. The three Moslem empires, and their progress in 

civilization. 303, 304 

14. What was done by Saracen pirates? 305 

15. Describe the rise of the Carlovingians. 301, 306-308 

16. The reign and character of Charlemagne. 308-313 

17. What became of his dominions after his death? 314, 315 

18. What is meant by the Feudal System? 316-319 

19. What occasioned the rise of the Saxon Line of 

emperors ? 320 

20. By whom, and for how long, were the Roman 

emperors chosen ? 321 

21. Describe the last of the Saxon, and the greatest of 

the Franconian emperors. 322, 323 

22. Tell the story of Henry IV. and Hildebrand. 324, 325 

23. Describe the Northmen and their conquests in the 

East. 326, 327 

24. Their piracies and settlements in the West. 328, 329 

25. The rise of their Italian kingdom. 331 

(194) 



Q UES TIONS. —B O OK II. 



195 



Seeiian 

26. Their conquest of England. 332, ^23 

27. The sons and nephew of William the Conqueror. 334, 335 

28. Who defended France against the Northmen? 336, 337 

29. Describe France under the first two Capets. 338, 339 

30. The First Crusade, its causes and results. 340-346 

31. Who had part in the Second Crusade? 347 

32. Describe Saladin and the Third Crusade. 348, 349 
"22' What was done in the Fourth Crusade? 351 

34. By the Emperor Frederic II. in the Fifth? 352 

35. What occasioned an alliance of Christians and 

Saracens? 353 

36. Describe the Crusades of Louis IX. of France. 354, 355 

37. What became of Acre? 356 
2'^. What were the consequences of the Crusades? 357-359 

39. What became of the three military Orders? 360, 361 

40. What relations existed between emperors and popes? 362 

41. Who were Guelfs and Ghibellines? 363 

42. Describe the wars of Frederic I. in Italy. 364 

43. The character and reign of Frederic II. 365 

44. Of the first of the Hapsburgs. 365 

45. Tell the story of Charles of Anjou in Italy. 366 

46. Of Rienzi. 367 

47. What can you tell of Italian cities and merchants? 368-370 

48. Of the German cities and people? 371, 372 

49. Describe the rise of the middle class. 373 

50. The character of the Turks. 303, 374 

51. Tell the story of Genghis Khan. 375 

52. Describe the Mongol dominion. 376 

53. The career of Tamerlane. 377 

54. The rise of the Ottoman Empire. 378-380 

55. The character and reign of Henry 11, of England. 381, 382 

56. Of his two sons. 2)^2 

57. What great event marks the reign of Henry III. ? 384 

58. Describe the first two Edwards in England. 385, 386 

59. The wars of Edward III. 387,389-406 

60. The reign of Richard ll. 390 

61. Name the three Lancastrian kings. 392-396 

62. Describe the wars of the Lancastrians in France. 393, 394 

63. Who was the King-maker, and why so called ? 397 

64. Name the three Yorkist kings. 397-399 

65. What is meant by the Wars of the Roses? 396 



196 MEDI.'EVAL HISTORY. 



Section 

66. Describe their end and their conse([uences. 399 

67. What events mark the reigns of Louis VI. and VII. 

in France? 400 

68. Describe the crusade against the Albigenses. 401, 402 

69. The character and reign of Louis IX. 403 

70. Of Philip IV. 404 

71. What three kings ended the elder line of Capet? 405 

72. Describe the first two Valois kings. 406, 407 

73. The condition of France under Charles VI. 408, 409 

74. "What changes occurred under Charles VII. ? 410 

75. Describe the character and reign of Louis XI. 411 -414 

76. The condition of Germany in the 14th and 15th 

centuries. 41 5 

77. "Who were the seven electors? 416 

78. What sons of Charles IV. wore the imperial crown? 417, 418 

79. Describe the Council of Constance, its acts and their 

consequences. 418-421 

80. What was done by the councils of Easle and Ferrara ? 421, 422 

81. What can you tell of the Hapsburgs? 423, 424 

82. Name some great teachers in the Middle Ages. 425 
?>2^. Name and describe the oldest universities. 426 

84. Wliat changes occurred in European languages? 427, 428 

85. What led to the revival of Learning? 429 

86. What important inventions toward the end of the 

Middle Ages? 430, 43I 

87. How were several western nations consolidated ? 432, 433 

88. Describe the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. 434, 435 

89. The Portuguese voyages of discovery. 435 

90. Tell the story of Columbus. 436, 437 

91. Describe the New World and its inhaljitants. 438 

92. Name other discovei'ers and their enterprises. 436-439 



BOOK III.— MODERN HISTORY. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE FRENCH IN ITALY. 




W French Troops Entering an Italian City. 

E have seen that the invention of gunpowder 
(§430) destroyed the miHtary supremacy of knights and 
nobles, but at first it seemed hkely to aggrandize the 
kings more than it elevated the people. Instead of the 
feudal levies, which served, at most, only forty days at a 
term, and were always crumbling away when most needed, 
a king could now have a regular standing army at his 
command ; and long foreign wars became possible. 

441. The first of these modern expeditions was the 
madcap invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. of 
France (§ 414). The pretext was in the claim 
of his house to the crown of Naples (§408), but an imme- 

(197) 



198 MODERN HISTORY. 



diate reason was that Lu'dovi'ro Sfor'za wanted to poison 
his nephew, the duke of Milan, and thought that the pres- 
ence of a French king as his ally might prevent the pun- 
ishment of his crime. 

442. Alexander VI. (A. D. 1492 -1503) was the worst 
pope that ever disgraced the throne of St. Peter, and all 
Italy was filled with corruption and violence. At Flor- 
ence the eloquent sermons of Savon'aro'la, a Dominican 
monk, effected a partial reformation of morals. He de- 
clared that the French were ministers of divine wrath 
against the wickedness of the times; and welcomed their 
king to Florence; but, when Charles proposed to tax the 
city and recall the Medici (i§ 370) who had just been ex- 
pelled, the Florentines flew to arms, and he was forced 
to retire. 

443. Charles passed through Rome to Naples. The 
Aragonese king (^ 366) abdicated, his son was expelled 
from the capital, and the whole kingdom was gained by 
the French almost without a blow. But Charles' foolish 
vanity and arrogance roused the indignation of the Neapol- 
itans; and by this time all Italy had recovered from its 
first shock of alarm, and had united in a league against 
him. He quitted Naples for the north, and the kingdom 
was lost as speedily as it had been won. 

444. This foolish war kindled a thirst for conquest in 
the kings of France, for which Italy suffered long. At 
the same time it led to better acquaintance among the na- 
tions, which resulted in some important alliances. Philip, 
heir of the Netherlands, married Joan'na, daughter of Fer- 
dinand and Isabella of Spain; while her younger sister, 
Cath'erine, became the wife of Arthur of England, and, 
upon his death, of his brother Henry, the heir of the 
English crown. These two marriages may be said to have 
shaped the history of the sixteenth century. Charles, son 
of Philip and Joanna, inherited Spain and the Indies, 



IVA/^S IN ITALY. 



199 



southern Italy and the Netherlands, and was elected to 
the imperial crown, A. D. 15 19, which made him the 
foremost figure in that eventful age, 

445. Charles VI 1 1, of France left no son, and, upon 
his early death, the crown went to his cousin 

Louis, duke of Orleans. To the royal claim ' ^'*'^^' 

upon Naples, Louis XII. added a title of his own to the 
duchy of Milan, and soon sent an army to enforce it. 
All Lombardy was annexed without a blow, and the king- 
dom of Naples was almost as easily reconquered. But 
Ferdinand of Aragon — the craftiest monarch of his age — 
though an ally of Louis, gained possession of the Neapol- 
itan fortresses by trickery, and drove out all the French. 
And, though Louis doomed thousands of brave men to die 
of pestilence in the marshes of southern Italy, he never 
succeeded either in regaining the kingdom or in punishing 
the fraud. 

446. The League of Cam])ray united the emperor, the 
pope, and the kings of France and Spain against the 
Venetian Republic. It was the first close alliance of 
great European powers since the crusades; and, 

oddly enough, its manifesto declared their main 
object to be a war against the ''Infidel," after having first 
put an end to the ambition and greed of Venice. This 
republic was, in fact, the only effective opponent of the 
Turks, and had just ended a war which deprived them of 
important dominions in the Levant. 

447. The war of die League was carried on with fright- 
ful brutality. In one instance 6,000 men, women, and 
children w^z smothered in a cave near Padua, the French 
soldiers ng deliberately kindled a fire at its entrance. 
The po] 'lius II., suddenly turned the balance by quit- 
ting his cv. lind forming a "Holy League," 

with Spain .. \ Venice, against the French. 

Untamed by o ) age or his peaceful profession, he con- 



200 MODERN HISTORY. 

stantly appeared on horseback at the head of his troops, 
enduring all the hardships of a severe winter. Gaston de 
Foix, the French commander, was called the " Thunder- 
bolt of Italy" on account of his swift, decisive movements. 
He gained many victories, but he was killed in the great 
battle of Ravenna, A. D. 15 12, and a few weeks later 
only three towns and three fortresses remained to the 
French of all their conquests in Italy. 

448. The warlike Pope Julius was succeeded, in 15 13, 
by the Cardinal de' Medici, who took the name of Leo X. 
He resembled his father, Lorenzo (§370) in the perfec- 
tion of his tastes in art and literature, and in his liberal 
and courteous manners. But he was a pagan in faith and 
a libertine in morals; and he used his great power chiefly 
to enrich his family, who were again supreme in Florence. 
Louis XII. died in 15 15, and his rival, Ferdinand, in 
1 5 16, Ferdinand was the most successful monarch of his 
age, but his character is stained by falsehood, ingratitude, 
and base injustice. 

449. Francis I. (A. D. 15 15 -1547), succeeding his 
cousin as king of France, lost no time in renewing the 
war in Italy. His generals conducted an army of 64,000 
men across the Alps by paths trodden hitherto only by 
mountain goats, and surprised the enemy by a sudden 
appearance upon the Lombard plain. The battle of Ma- 
rignano regained the Milanese duchy for Francis. 

450. The emperor Maximilian died in 15 19, and the 
seven electors bestowed the crown upon Charles of Spain. 
In his envy and disappointment, Francis sought the alli- 
ance of Henry VIII. of England against the nev" emperor, 

and had with him, near Calais, a is inter- 

view, known as the Field of the (^ of Gold, 
from the brilliant display of trappings on ei' side. But 

the emperor was, at the same time, courti ^ lUe friendship 
of Henry and his great minister Wolse^ , promising his 



FRAXCIS I. A PRISONER. 201 

influence to make the latter pope at the next vacancy. 
Henry tried to make peace between his two great allies ; 
but the causes of enmity were too deeply seated, and the 
contests for Burgundy, Milan, and Naples broadened into 
an almost continuous war of two hundred years between 
France and the House of Austria. 

451. In 152 1, Francis lost the duchy of Milan, and 
Pope Leo X. is said to have died of joy at the news. 
He was succeeded, in the papal chair, by Adrian, tutor of 
Charles V. — an honest man, who purified the Roman 
court during the few months of his reign. Francis was 
just ready for a new invasion of Italy, when he was de- 
serted by his kinsman and most powerful subject, the 
Duke de Bourbon. Having been injured and bitterly in- 
sulted by the king's mother, Bourbon went over to the 
emperor, and agreed with him and the English king, 
upon a triple partition of France. Henry VIII. actually 
advanced within thirty-three miles of Paris; but his allies 
failed to support him, and France was not divided. 

452. In 1524, Francis marched into Italy with every 
prospect of victory. He was defeated, however, by Bour- 
bon, in a great battle before Pavia, and was made a pris- 
oner. For a year he was held a captive in Spain, and 
finally released only upon his promise to restore Burgundy 
(§413) to Charles. As soon as he was free, Francis 
broke his royal word, and hostilities were renewed. He 
gained little, although Pavia was taken and given up to 
pillage in revenge for his disaster before its walls. A truce 
was agreed upon in the treaty of Cambray — known as the 
Ladies' Peace, because it was negotiated by the emperor's 
aunt and the king's mother, A. D. 1529. 

Trace the march of Charles VIII, through Italy. Point out 
Ravenna. Padua, Pavia. Milan. Venice. The dominions of 
Charles V,, ^444. 

Read Villari's Life of Savonarola; Ranke's History of the Popes: 
Dyer's History of Modern Europe, Vol. I. 



CHAPTER 11. 



CHARLES V. AND THE REFORMATION — THE TURKS. 




HE separation of most of the 

northern nations of Europe from 

the Roman Church was the 

greatest event of the sixteenth 

century. Its causes liad been at 

work ever since the time of the 

Crusades. Wealth and undisputed 

power had brought abuses into the 

church ; and the more men learned 

to think for themselves, the less 

they were able to believe that such 

popes as Alexander VI. were the 

true representatives of Christ upon 

earth. 

454. The principal leader of the 
Reformation was Martin Luther, 
a German miner's son. In his youth he was a charity 
scholar, earning his bread by singing hymns from house 
to house. The sudden death of a friend aroused his 
religious feelings, and, (putting the study of the law, he 
became a monk. Visiting Rome, he saw evidences of the 
corruption of the clergy, which filled him with horror. 

455. About this time the sale of ''Indulgences," by the 
priests, became common. At first, money had been paid 
merely as a commutation for the temporal penalties which 
the church was accustomed to inflict; but the change was 
not very great from the pardon of past to indulgence for 
future offenses. Tet'zel, a Dominican monk, but a man of 
(202) 



A German Nobleman. 



MARTIN LUTHER. 203 



infamous life, was the agent in Germany. A gay young 
knight, who saw here a chance for sport, bought permis- 
sion to beat and pknider a man for whom he said he had 
a thorough contempt. The paper being duly signed, and a 
liberal price paid, he fell upon Tetzel himself in a wood, 
with a band of armed retainers, and robbed him of the chest 
of gold which he had gained by the sale of his wares. 

456. Lu'ther, now a famous professor at Wittenberg, 
preached boldly against this traffic, and the good sense 
of the German people sustained him, even when he nailed 
to the church door his 95 theses, declaring 

that remission of sins is from God alone. He 
was summoned to Rome to be tried for heresy, but his 
sovereign, the elector of Saxony, forbade him to go. The 
pope excommunicated him, and the emperor cited him to 
appear before the diet at Worms. Here he firmly refused 
to retract any of his teachings unless they could be refuted 
from the Bible. Many urged the emperor to imprison 
him for his boldness; but Charles respected his own word, 
which was pledged for Luther's safety, and replied, "No, 
I will not blush like Sigismund at Constance" (§419). 
The reformer was, however, declared an outlaw, together 
with all who .should shelter him, or print, buy, sell, or read 
his books. Seeing his danger, the elector Frederic ordered 
him to be shut up in the Wartburg, where he spent a year 
in making a German translation of the Scriptures. 

457. Luther was called from his retreat by news of 
disorderly movements among the people, who hoped that 
the "new religion" was going to right all their wrongs at 
once. Some of them even expected an ecpial distribution 
of property, and began to i)lunder churches, convents, and 
castles. While urging the princes and nobles to do justice, 
and provide for the education of the peojile, Luther advised 
the latter to submit to their lawful rulers. Order was not 
restored without the loss of 100,000 lives. 



204 MODERN HISTORY. 

458. While the pope himself was a prisoner in the hands 
of the emperor (§461), and the Turks were threatening 
all Christendom alike, Charles was compelled to favor the 
reformers, who united themselves in the league of Torgau, 
1526. Three years later, the diet at Spires decreed that 
no changes from the worship and doctrine of the old 
church should be allowed. Nine German princes and 
fifteen free cities protested against this decree; whence the 
reforming party took the name of Protestants. 

459- I^y ^^li^ time, Denmark and Sweden, as well as a 
great part of Germany, had accepted the doctrines of 
Luther. A similar reformation had been going on in 
Switzerland under Zwing'li, who persuaded the Council of 
Z.urich to declare the Scriptures to be the only standard 
of faith. In PYench Switzerland, Farel' and Cal'vin con- 
tinued the work which Zwingli had begun; while in France 
itself, a numerous party, including the king's sister. Queen 
Margaret of Navarre, believed in the reformed doctrines. 

460. In the meantime, all Europe trembled at the prog- 
ress of Sol'yman the Magnificent, the ablest of the Turkish 
monarchs. Three great fortresses of Hungary were taken 
by him in the summer of 1521; <nnd, the following year, 
the island of Rhodes was surrendered, after a long and 
heroic defense by the Knights of St. John (§§346, 360, 
361). In vain Pope Adrian tried to unite the princes of 
Europe in a crusade; their mutual enmities were too strong. 
In 1523 he died, and was succeeded by Clem'ent VII., 
one of the Medici. 

461. Clement's pontificate was marked by greater losses 
and calamities than ever pope endured before. At its 
beginning he was besieged by Cardinal Colon'na, who plun- 
dered his palace and the church of St. Peter; the next 

year a S})anish and German army took Rome 

' ^^"'^" by storm, and for two weeks made havoc of 

the treasures which all Europe had been pouring into it for 



SOLYMAN THE MAGNIFICENT. 205 

centuries in offerings of devotion. Pope Clement was im- 
prisoned half a year, and was finally released only upon 
paying an enormous ransom, and promising to convene a 
general council for the reformation of the Church. This 
promise he broke; and, before his death, England and a 
great part of northern Europe (§459) cast off their obedi- 
ence to the popes. 

462. Solyman had by this time subdued Egypt, and 
nearly conquered Persia: turning again to the westward, 
he declared himself lord of all the dominions of Constan- 
tine. The Hungarians were unable to resist him. In the 
fatal battle of Mohacz their young king was 

slain, and his army destroyed. Their capital 
was taken by the Turks, and all its treasures went to 
enrich Constantinople. Instead of uniting even now, the 
Christian princes spent their strength in a dispute over 
the vacant crowns of Hungary and Bohemia. The latter 
was conferred upon Ferdinand of Austria, the emperor's 
brother and successor in the imperial title; the former was 
contested by John Zapol'ya, the greatest of the Hungarian 
nobles, who was aided by the French king, the pope, and, 
finally, by Solyman himself. 

463. Zapolya did homage (§317) for his crown to the 
sultan, whom he acknowledged as successor of the eastern 
C?esars; then accompanied him to Buda, and helped to 
put its Christian garrison to the sword! Vienna itself was 
besieged by the Turkish fleet and army, but was so well 
defended that Solyman was comi)elled to depart. 

The threatening attitude of the Turks compelled Charles 
V. to favor the Protestants, who were now united in the 
league of Smalcald. Full liberty was granted to the 
doctrines of the Augsburg Confession, lately adopted as 
the standard of Lutheran faitli. 

464. In 1532, Solyman marched into Hungary at the 
head of 350,000 men and an immense train of artillery. 



2o6 MODERN HISTORY. 

But he spent his forces in trifling operations, and the next 
year made peace with Charles. He still kept his " flying 
squadrons " of pirates in the Mediterranean, whose most 
formidable chief was Barbaros'sa, sultan of Algiers. Along 
the northern coasts no man slept in security, for at any 
hour the corsairs might appear and drag away as captives 
any whom they might find. Thousands of these wretched 
victims were in slavery on the African coast. 

465, In 1535, the emperor undertook, in person, the 
punishment of this freebooter. Landing near Tunis he 
stormed its fortress, routed Barbarossa in a pitched battle, 
occupied the city, and restored its rightful sovereign, whom 
Barbarossa had expelled. He moreover set free a vast 
multitude of Christian captives, whom he clothed and sent 
home to Europe. Francis I., though many of his own 
subjects were thus liberated, hated Charles all the more 
for his great success. He took Barbarossa into his own 
pay, and renewed hostilities with the emperor. To guard 
against invasion, he laid waste a rich and beautiful tract 
of his own dominion, on the lower Rhone. Villages were 
destroyed, crops burned, and wells poisoned. Charles 
marched to besiege Marseilles; but this horrid plan of 
defense was too successful, and he had to retreat with a 
loss of 30,000 men. 

466. Upon the death of Zapolya, Solyman seized Buda, 
the capital of Hungary which for 150 years continued to 
be a Mohammedan city, both in religion and government. 
A second African expedition, made by Charles V. in 1542, 
resulted in failure. His fleet was destroyed by tempests, and 
his army by famine and pestilence. The king of France, 
rejoicing in these disasters, raised five great armies to attack 
the various dominions of the emperor; but his enterprises 
ended in much loss and very little gain. His Turkish allies 
meanwhile found a ready market at Marseilles for the Chris- 
tian slaves whom they carried away from the coasts of Italy! 



THE FIRST RELIGIOUS WAR. 207 



467. Again, as in the days of Charles Martel (§§300-302), 
it seemed possible that the Mediterranean would be sur- 
rounded by a great Mohammedan empire; but the prospect 
was far more terrible than before, for the Turks were a 
brutal race compared with the refined and intellectual 
Saracens. All the Christian powers were indignant at the 
alliance of Francis I. with these pirates; and Henry VIII. 
of England again joined Charles V. in an 
invasion of France. He captured Boulogne, ' ' ' ^^^^' 
while the emperor took several towns and fortresses, and 
advanced within two days' march of Paris. 

468. But Francis was now disgusted with his unnatural 
allies: he made peace with Charles, and promised to join 
him in the suppression of heresy. The Vaudois, a harm 
less people, who occupied the high Alpine valleys between 
France and Piedmont, were the first sufferers from this 
new alliance. They had kept the simple faith of the 
early Christian ages, and were glad to find themselves in 
substantial agreement with the Reformers. The armies of 
Francis now pursued them like wild beasts among their 
mountains, hurling mothers with their children from the 
cliffs, and dragging off men to be chained in the royal 
galleys. In many towns of France and the Netherlands 
persons were burned to death for heresy. 

469. In December, 1545, the Council of Trent was 
opened (§461). But, without waiting for its decisions, 
the emperor collected a great afmy, and made war on the 
Protestant princes. By a mixture of violence and fraud, 
he captured the elector of Saxony, and the landgrave 
of Hesse, and bestowed the dominions of the former on 
Duke Maurice of Saxony, whose descendants still retain 
them. The duke was a cousin of the rightful elector, who, 
while leading the Protestant armies, trusted him to govern 
and defend his dominions. His betrayal of the trust was 
almost a death blow to the Protestants. But Maurice, 



2o8 MODERN HISTORY. 

having gained all he wanted, turned against the emperor, 
and nearly made him prisoner by a sudden movement. 
The bishops in council at Trent made a hasty retreat, and 
only met again after ten years' vacation. This first religious 
war in Germany was ended by the peace of Passau, 1552. 
The Smalcaldic League was dissolved, and its forces went to 
fight the Turks, who were overrunning all southern Hungary, 
and ravaging the Mediterranean coasts and islands. 

470. In 1555, the sick and weary emperor resolved to 
throw off the burden of public care, and snatch a little 
repose before his death. His two rivals were already 
dead. He invested his son Philip with the lordship 
of all the Netherlands and the crown of Spain, while 
he recommended his brother Ferdinand (§462) to the 
electors for the imperial crown. He then took up his 
residence in a convent, at Yuste, in southern Spain, where 
•lie amused himself with gardening, watch-making, and 
music; though he still kept a keen eye on public affairs, 
and aided his children by his advice. Two years after 
his retirement, he was seized with a strange desire to 
celebrate his own funeral. Clothed as a monk, he joined 
the chant of the brotherhood about his empty coffin, but 
within a month this solemn farce was turned into reality. 
He died on the 21st of September, 1558. 

471. The reign of Charles V. was one of the most 
eventful periods in history. Conquest and colonization in 
America, and struggles of religious principles in Europe, 
had made the world on which he closed his eyes, in 1558, 
a different one from that on which they had opened with 
the century. The Reformation had at one time affected 
Italy and Spain, Austria and Hungary, no less than north- 
ern Germany and England; but it was now checked in all 
the dominions of the Spanish-Austrian family. 

472. The new society of Jesuits had much to do with 
this counter-reformation. Their founder was Ignatius Loy- 



THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. 209 



o'la, a Spanish cavalier, who in his youth had been severely 
wounded in battle. While slowly recovering, his mind, 
full of remorse for past sins, plunged eagerly into schemes 
for atonement by extending the Christian faith into regions 
of heathendom. So, while Luther was shaking the dominion 
of the church by his preaching, Loyola was preparing a 
movement which reestablished and extended its power. 
The Jesuits differed from most of the other religious 
orders by their liberal studies, which developed all their 
talents, and made them the ablest of teachers. The 
influence which they gained over the princes and leading 
minds of Catholic Europe, may be read in the history of 
the next three centuries. The General of the order, 
residing at Rome, was made acquainted with each mem- 
ber's character and talents; and while he made use of the 
commanding intellect of some to manage kings and em- 
perors, he could employ the humble piety of others in 
missions to the savages of America, and the crowded cities 
of China and Japan. 

Point out the dominions of Charles V. on Map 9. ??444, 451. 
The conquests of Solyman. Trace the expeditions of Charles V. 
Point out the country of the Vaudois. Spires, Worms, Augsburg, 
Trent. 

Read Ranke's History of the Popes, and History of Germany 
during the Reformation : Robertson's Life of Charles the Fifth, 
edited by Prescott ; Co.xe's House of Austria. 



Hist. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE HOUSE OF ORLEANS IN FRANCE. 




^HE last six kings of the House of 
Valois (see Table, p. 214, and §406) 
belonged to the Orleans branch. 
The wars of Louis XII. in Italy have 
been mentioned (§445). At home he 
proved himself a wise and good king, 
by lightening the burdens and studying 
the welfare of his people. The hard 
lessons of his early life had not been 
lost upon him. He had been treated 
with injustice by the court, especially 
by the Lady of Beaujeu, a worthy 
daughter of Louis XL, who had been 
regent during her brother's minority; 
but when the early and sudden death 
of Charles VIII. raised him unexpect- 
edly to the throne, the courtiers began 
to fear that they had damaged their own prospects. Louis 
quieted their uneasiness by the generous remark that *'it 
would ill become a king of France to remember the 
quarrels of a duke of Orleans." 

474. The character of Francis I. (A. D. 15 15 -1547) 
has been shown in his dealings with Charles V. and Henry 
VIIL, and with his Vaudois subjects (§468). He little 
cared though his people were starving at home, so long as 
his hunger for "glory" could be fed by conquests in 
Italy; and though he talked much of the "honor of a 
(210) 




A Leaguer. 



REIGN OF HENRY II. 211 

king," he broke his word without uneasiness. His inter- 
course with Italy, however, brought some increase of 
refinement to France; and he claimed the proud title of 
"Restorer of Letters and the Arts." 

475. During the reign of his son, Henry H. (A. D. 
1547-1559), the Guises, an ambitious and powerful family 
descended from the dukes of Lorraine, gained great as- 
cendency at the French court. Mary of Guise became 
the wife of James V. of Scotland, and her daughter, the 
young Queen Mary (§498), was married to the dauphin, 
afterwards Francis H. During the regency of the elder 
queen, the Guises ruled the Scottish court, where they 
strongly opposed the English and Protestant influence. 

476. Henry H. married Catherine de Medici, a niece 
of Pope Clement VH. To adorn her coronation, several 
Lutherans were burnt at Paris. Though he persecuted 
his own heretical subjects, Henry allied himself with the 
Protestants of Germany, that he might seize Metz, Toul, 
and Verdun, free imperial cities, which until very lately • 
(1870) were still held by France. The Duke of Guise 
distinguished himself by defending Metz against the Em- 
peror Charles V., who, with a grand army of 100,000 
men, vainly tried to recapture it. 

477. In war with Philip II., the French forces suffered 
a severe defeat at St. Quentin; but Guise partly 
consoled the king by the capture of Calais, 

which, for more than 200 years, had been held by the 
English (§388). The treaty of Cateau Cambre'sis two 
years later, which closed this war with Philip, divided the 
powers of Europe into two great reljgious parties. England, 
now ruled by EHzabeth, was recognized as the head of 
the Protestant interests, while Philip of Spain was the 
champion of the Roman Church. During the festivities 
following the treaty, Henry II. was accidentally killed by 
the lance of one of his courtiers. 



MODERN HISTORY. 



478. The Reformed Church of France, deriving its doc- 
trines from Calvin, was first organized in the reign of 
Henry II. The French Protestants were now first called 
Huguenots. During the successive reigns of Henry's three 
sons, their mother, Catherine de Medici, tried to rule 
France by playing off the Catholic party, led by the Guises, 
against the Huguenots who had the great Bourbon family, 
including the princes of Conde and the young king of 
Navarre, at their head. 

479. Francis II. reigned less than a year and a half, 
and was succeeded, in 1560, by his brother, Charles IX., 
then only ten years old. The religious wars broke out 
with an attack of the duke of Guise and his armed retainers 
upon a congregation of Huguenots, who were met for 
worship in a barn. Frightful scenes of violence soon 
occurred in all parts of France. The pope and the king 
of Spain sent aid to the Catholics, while Elizabeth of En- 
gland furnished men and money to the Huguenots. 

480. The queen-mother, who cared only too little for 
any religion, but who wanted to marry her favorite son 
Henry to the queen of England, at length procured a 
treaty of peace, by which the Huguenots were guaranteed 
freedom of worship, and restoration to all their rights. 
The good Admiral Coligny, one of their leaders, was in- 
vited to court, and was treated with the greatest affection 
by Charles. 

481. Two years later, the Princess Margaret was married 
to the young king Henry of Navarre, now the chief of the 
Huguenots, and all good men rejoiced in this token of a 
settled peace. It is hard to tell when the friendly policy 

was abandoned, but within six days after the 

"" ^'^' '^^^' wedding, before daylight of St. Bartholomew's 

Day, a signal was given from the palace for a general 

massacre of the Huguenots! Instantly, as if a myriad 

of wild beasts had been let loose, the streets of Paris 



MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 213 

resounded with the yells of murderers and the despairing 
cries of their victims. Eight days and nights these horrid 
scenes went on in Paris, and they were repeated in all the 
cities of France. 

482. King Charles had opposed his mother's plan, but 
he, too, was seized w^ith a tiger-like thirst for blood, and 
from the window of his palace shot many a poor fugitive 
who was attempting to escape. But, as soon as the frenzy 
was over, his better soul awoke, and conscience never 
afterwards allowed him to rest. His sleep was broken by 
the cries of his victims, or by visions of their blood-stained 
faces, and the only approach to comfort he enjoyed was 
in listening to the hymns of his old Huguenot nurse. He 
died within two years of the massacre, in the 24th year 
of his age, A. D. 1574. 

483. His brother, Henry HI., was a shallow youth, w^ho 
gave more attention to his monkeys, parrots, and fantastic 
dress, than to the parties that were tearing France to pieces. 
The great feudal chiefs — even commandants of single towns 
and fortresses — set up independent governments in con- 
tempt of the royal power. The king's only surviving 
brother joined the Huguenot party in order to secure some 
new provinces for himself, and obtained for them a more 
favorable treaty than they had ever before enjoyed. 

484. The Guises and most of the Catholic nobles now 
joined themselves in a league for the extirpation of the 
Huguenots. They accepted the protection of the king of 
Spain, and secretly planned the dethronement of Henry 
HI. Henry yielded all that they asked. He declared 
himself the head of the league, hoping thus to disarm its 
treasonable designs; and he revoked all grants of freedom 
of conscience. His weak policy did not succeed; his 
nominal leadership only lasted three months, and the duke 
of Guise, a man of immense force of character, was always 
the true leader. The death of the king's brother made the 



214 MODERN HISTORY. 

leaguers yet more zealous, for Henry of Navarre, the head 
of the Huguenot party, was the next heir to the throne. 
The Duke of Guise seized Paris, and set up a revolutionary 
government, which continued six years in force. 

485. Unable to meet this powerful subject in a fair field, 
Henry invited Guise to a conference, and caused him to be 
murdered in his very presence, A. D, 1588. This base deed 
was soon requited; for a Dominican monk, named Clement, 
obtained an audience, and stabbed the king to the heart. 
Henry IH. was last of the descendants of Philip of Valois, 
who had ruled France 260 years. The queen-mother, 
Catherine de Medici, died a few days after the murder of 
Guise. 

Point out, on Maps 7 and 13, the duchy of Lorraine. The cities 
of Metz, Toul, Verdun, Paris, Calais. 

Read Histories of France already mentioned, and Pressense's His- 
tory of Protestantism in France. 



TABLE — HOUSE OF VALOIS. 



Philip VI. 

I 

John. 

Charles V. 
I 



Charles VI. Louis, Duke of Orleans. 



I I I 

Charles VII. Charles, Duke of Orleans. John, Count of Angouleme. 

Lolis XI. Louis XII. Charles, Count of Angouleme. 

Charles VIII. Francis I. 

I 



Henry II. m. Catherine de Medici. 

\ 

Francis II. Charles IX. Henry III. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE TLDORS IN ENGLAND. 




Costume of XVI. 
Century. 



Y marrying a daughter of Edward IV., 
Henry VII. (A. D. 1485 -1509) united 
the rival houses of York and Lancaster, 
and ended the Wars of the Roses 
(§§396-399). The Yorkists, however, 
put forward two claimants to the crown, 
one pretending to be the Earl of War- 
wick, nephew of Edward IV. and grand- 
son of the "King-maker," the other 
personating young Richard of York, 
who had been smothered in the Tower 
(§ 398). Both rebellions were easily 
put down ; but the king's narrow, grasp- 
ing disposition did not win the love of 
his people. 

487. The middle class made great advances, however, 
during this reign. Poor nobles were permitted to sell 
their estates, which were bought, in many cases, by thrifty 
citizens. The number of retainers in noblemen's house- 
holds was also limited by law, and thus a great many 
idlers were driven to honest work. Englishmen had their 
full share in exploring the bays and coasts of the New 
World — a welcome field of adventure for many bold and 
restless spirits, who, like their ancestors (§§328-329), 
delighted in the perils of the sea. 

488. Henry VIII. (A. D. 1509- 1547) succeeded, at the 
age of eighteen, to a clear title and a full treasury. He 
was the first king since Richard II. (§390) whose claim 

(215) 



2i6 MODERN HISTORY. 

to the crown had been undisputed, and his popularity was 
unbounded. For the first twenty years of his reign, no 
one doubted his sincere desire to rule justly. He mar- 
ried Catherine of Spain (§ 444); his eldest sister was 
already wife of the king of Scotland. 

489. Henry's ambition soon led him into wars on the 
continent. Hoping to regain the almost forgotten posses- 
sions of his ancestors (§§ 350, 381) he invaded France, and 
gained the "Battle of the Spurs," so called from the sud- 
den flight of the enemy. Meanwhile James IV. of Scot- 
land marched into England, but he was de- 

' ^^^^' feated and slain with 10,000 of his followers at 
Flodden Field. Henry hastened to make peace with his 
sister, who was regent for her infant son, James V. Peace 
with France was soon afterward sealed by the marriage 
of his younger sister with Louis XH. 

490. Henry's chief minister was Thomas Wol'sey, who, 
by his own remarkable talents and the king's favor, was 
raised from a humble position to great power. He was 
archbishop of York, cardinal, and chancellor of the king- 
dom; his palaces almost equaled the king's in magnificence 
and crowds of attendants. The emperor Charles flattered 
Wolsey, as the surest way to win the favor of Henry 
(§ 450). He gave him two Spanish bishoprics, and prom- 
ised his influence to make him pope. Two elections passed 
(§§ 451, 460) without the fulfillment of this promise, and 
Wolsey became the chief opponent of Queen Catherine 
and the Spanish party in England. 

491. Of all the children of Henry and Catherine, only 
the sickly princess Mary survived infancy. Henry saw in 
the death of his sons a sure proof of the wrath of heaven 
for his marriage with his brother's widow, which was con- 
trary to the rules of the church. Wolsey, as priest and 
counselor, encouraged the thought. His importance would 
have been increased by arranging a new marriage with a 



MAP No. X. 



I 




REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 217 

French princess, and so he pushed the application for the 
king's divorce. 

492. Pope Clement (j^ 461) had a hard question to de- 
cide. The Reformation had so affected all the countries 
in Europe, that if he offended the emperor — Catherine's 
nephew — Germany and the Netherlands would certainly 
become Protestant ; while, if he refused the divorce, both 
England and France were almost equally sure to separate 
from the Roman Church. He tried to gain time by par- 
leys. Wolsey, finding that the king chose to marry Anne 
Boleyn, a maid of honor to Queen Catherine, instead of 
the French princess, lost his zeal for the divorce. 

493. This occasioned his fall. He was ordered to retire 
to his archbishopric of York; but the next year he was 
arrested on a charge of high treason, and died on his way 
to London. On his death-bed he uttered these memorable 
words: "Had I but served my God as diligently as I have 
served the king. He would not have given me over in 
my gray hairs." Cran'mer, an obscure priest, now advised 
the king to lay the question of his divorce befote all the 
universities in Europe. Their opinion w^as 

^ • 1 , A. D. 1533. 

agamst it; but Cranmer was raised to the 

primacy of England, and held a court in which he 

pronounced the marriage annulled. 

494. Parliament confirmed the decision, and recognized 
Anne Boleyn as the lawful wife of their king. They had 
previously declared Henry to be the head of the English 
Church, and annulled the pope's claim to tribute and obe- 
dience. A subsequent parliament suppressed all the abbeys 
and convents in England. Part of their revenues were 
applied to schools, colleges, and six new bishoprics, but a 
large part went to enrich the courtiers; and Charles V., 
referring to the immense loans which former kings had 
drawn from the abbeys, laughingly remarked that his 

Hist — 19. 



2i8 MODERN HISTORY. 

''brother of England had killed the goose that laid the 
golden egg." 

495. Though he had thus separated from the pope, 
Henry hated the Reformation. He had distinguished him- 
self, in his early years, by writing a book against Luther, 
which gained for him the title, ''Defender of the Faith." 
His wrath was pretty equally divided between the Catho- 
lics, who denied his supremacy, and the Protestants, who 
disbelieved his doctrines. Among the former, who died 
for conscience' sake, were Sir Thomas More, the brightest 
genius and most virtuous and amiable man of the time; 
Fisher, the good bishop of Rochester, and the monks of 
the Charterhouse in London, a brotherhood whom scandal 
never accused of any other crime than faithfulness to their 
convictions. 

496. Three years from her coronation. Queen Anne was 
beheaded on frivolous charges, and her late attendant, Jane 
Sey'mour, became queen. The next year, the whole nation 
rejoiced in the birth of a prince, who was afterward King 
Edward VL Queen Jane died peaceably; and the king's 
next marriage was with Anne of Cleves, a German prin- 
cess. She failed to please him, and the marriage was 
annulled. The misconduct of Catherine Howard, his fifth 
wife, compelled the king to sign her death-warrant, and 
she was beheaded on Tower Hill. His sixth and last wife, 
Catherine Parr, nearly lost her head in consequence of a 
theological discussion, but her ready wit saved her life. 

497. In his last years Henry became an intolerable 
tyrant, and the lives of some of his most noble and 
blameless subjects were sacrificed to his suspicion. He 
died in 1547, the same year with Francis I. of France. 
His son, Edward VL (A. D. 1547 -1553), was only nine 
years old, and the duke of Somerset was made Protector. 
He was a warm friend of the Reformation. A commission 
appointed by him, with Archbishop Cranmer at its head. 



LADY JANE GREY. 219 

gave to the English Church the forms of doctrine and 
worship which it still retains. 

498. James V. of Scotland (§ 489) had died in 1542, 
leaving only an infant daughter, the afterwards celebrated 
Mary, Queen of Scots, to inherit his crown. A leading 
policy of Henry VIII., and of Somerset after him, was to 
marry the young Edward to this baby queen, and thus 
peaceably unite the two kingdoms. The Protestant nobles 
of Scotland favored this alliance, but their opponents hur- 
ried the little queen over to France and betrothed her to 
the dauphin. 

499. Somerset's talents were not equal to the great 
changes he tried to effect. He Avas at length deprived of 
all his offices, condemned for treason, and beheaded. His 
power passed into the hands of his rival, the duke of 
Northumberland. This unscrupulous plotter persuaded the 
young king to set aside his two sisters, Mary and Eliza- 
beth, who were next him in the succession by his father's 
will, and to bequeath the crown to his cousin, Jane Grey, 
who was married to Guilford Dudley, Northumberland's 
own son (see Table, p. 523). This having been done, 
Edward's health declined more rapidly, and he died in the 
sixteenth year of his age. 

500. Lady Jane was crowned, against her will, and for 
ten days a small circle called her queen. But the true 
queen, Mary Tudor, was welcomed to London with shouts 
of loyalty; and Northumberland, with his chief accom- 
plices, was beheaded for high treason. Lady Jane and her 
husband were spared on account of their youth and inno- 
cence; but the next year a rebellion of some of their 
friends brought them to the scaffold. 

501. Queen Mary (A. D. 15 53-1 5 58) soon consented to 
a marriage with her cousin, Philip of Spain (§ 444), though 
her best councilors dreaded that great power which ruled 
so large a part of Europe and the New World (§471), 



2 20 MODERN HISTORY. 

and was believed to be aiming at universal dominion. 
Mary's strongest desire was to restore the pope's suprem- 
acy in England, and in this she was aided by her husband 
and her cousin, Cardinal Pole, who was appointed papal 
legate. The latter was a good man and counseled gende 
measures, but Philip and Mary leaned rather to the brutal 
])olicy of Gardiner, under which nearly three hundred 
persons were burned to death as heretics. Among them 
were Cranmer and the good bishops, Ridley and Latimer. 

502. To please her husband, Mary plunged into a war 
with France, and lost Calais, the last remaining foothold 
of the English on the continent. Vexation at this loss 
and at Philip's neglect threw her into a fever, of which 
she died in the sixth year of her reign. 

503. The accession of Elizabeth (A. D. 1558- 1603), 
daughter of Anne Boleyn, was welcomed with universal 
joy. Learning wisdom by lifer sister's mistake, she refused 
all offers of marriage from Philip of Spain and others, 
declaring that she was wedded only to her realm, and 
would never give it a foreign master. Her first Parliament 
restored the English Church as in Edward's day, with the 
queen instead of the pope at its head. Almost as many 
persons lost their lives by denying Elizabeth's supremacy, 
as had suffered under her unhappy sister's persecutions; 
but it must be remembered that most of them were also 
traitors. The pope had publicly denied Elizabeth's claims 
as queen, and her mother's as wife (§492); and her 
cousin, Mary of Scotland, who was in fact the next heir, 
had, with his approval, adopted the arms and title of 
Queen of England (see Table, p. 223). 

504. Two years after Elizabeth's accession Mary re- 
turned, a widow, to her native land. She had been edu- 
cated as a Catholic, amid the gay and elegant amusements 
of the French court, and both her religion and her manners 
shocked the grave Reformers who now had the chief in- 



REIGN OF ELIZABETH. 221 

fluence in Scotland. In 1565 she married Lord Darnley 
(see Table), a dissolute and contemptible youth, who soon 
lost her confidence. In revenge for her displeasure, he 
brutally murdered her secretary at her very feet. A few 
months later, the house in which Darnley alone was sleep- 
ing was blown up with gunpowder, and he was killed. 
The dark suspicion which fell upon the queen was deep- 
ened by her marrying the Earl of Bothwell, who was known 
to have been concerned in the murder of Darnley. 

505. Mary was imprisoned, and her infant son was 
crowned. She escaped, was defeated in battle, and took 
refuge in England, where she was tried by a commission of 
Scottish and English nobles for the murder of her husband. 
No sentence was pronounced, but she was imprisoned nine- 
teen years in England, the center of innumerable plots 
against the life and government of Elizabeth, and was at 
length beheaded in Fotheringay Castle. 

506. Elizabeth, meanwhile, by wise and thrifty manage- 
ment, had restored happiness and order to her kingdom. 
While Philip's persecutions in the Netherlands were driv- 
ing the most skillful and industrious of his subjects into 
exile, Elizabeth welcomed all artisans on condition of their 
taking one English apprentice each, and thus many fine 
manufactures became established in the country. English 
merchants and sailors joined heartily in the maritime 
adventures of the time. 

507. Francis Drake sailed around the globe, and came 
back laden with Spanish gold. Others penetrated the 
northern seas and opened a trade with Archangel in 
Russia, while the gold and ivory of the Guinea coast en- 
riched the merchants of Southampton. Sir Walter Raleigh 
attempted a settlement in a region of North America, 
which was named Virginia, in honor of the maiden queen. 
The enterprise was abandoned for a time, owing to perils 



2 22 MODERN HISTORY. 



at home; but the capital of North Carohna still commem- 
orates the gallant adventurer. 

508. In 1588 Philip of Spain fitted out an immense 
fleet to avenge the death of Mary Stuart, and assert his 
own claim to the English crown, which she had bequeathed 
him. If any thing had been wanting to unite all English 
hearts in love and loyalty to Elizabeth, this insolence would 
have supplied it. All ranks, classes, and religions worked 
together with a common zeal for the defense, and Eliza- 
beth proved her generous confidence by bestowing on Lord 
Howard of Eihngham, a Catholic nobleman, the command 
of her fleet. 

509. At length the "Invincible Armada" appeared, 
stretching seven miles from wing to wing, and composed 
of the largest vessels that had ever been seen. The Eng- 
lish ships were smaller and lighter, but their captains knew 
the coast and could easily harass the clumsy enemy. In 
the "English Salamis," as in the Greek (§§ 54, 118), valor 
and patriotism won the day against immensely superior 
numbers. Attempting to retreat northward, the Spaniards 
were wrecked among the Orkneys; and it was only a tat- 
tered remnant of the Invincible Armada that reentered the 
ports of Spain. From this time England ruled the sea. 
The great Spanish galleons, laden with the gold of Mexico 
and Peru, often fell into the hands of Drake and his brave 
comrades; and their capture lessened Philip's power for 
mischief. 

510. Ireland was, as usual, in rebellion, and Elizabeth's 
chief favorite, the young Earl of Essex, failed in his 
attempt to subdue it. The queen's displeasure drove him 
into sedition, and she reluctantly signed his death-warrant, 
but she never recovered from the grief which it cost her. 
She shut herself up in her palace, refused food, and died 
in the 70th year of her age and the 45th of her reign. 



FAMILY OF TUDOR, 223 

With her ended the EngHsh Tiidors, and James VI. of 
Scotland, son of the unfortunate Mary, came to the throne. 

511. The Ehzabethan Age was, perhaps, the brightest 
of England's literary eras. The wonderful events and dis- 
coveries of the day kept all minds active, and the language 
reached its perfection in the musical verse of Spenser, the 
romance of Sidney, the rugged treatises of Hooker, the 
wise philosophy of Bacon, and the wonderful dramas of 
Shakespeare. The queen was well versed in Greek, Latin, 
and several modern languages. 

The success of Elizabeth's reign was largely owing to 
her able ministers, Ce'cil, Wal'singham, and others; but, 
in spite of many faults of personal character, the queen 
herself must rank among the greatest sovereigns of her 
time. 

Read Green's "Short History," Ch. VI, Sections iv and v, and 
Ch. VII. 



THE TUDORS IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 

Henry VII. 

I 



Margaret m. i, , m. 2, Douglas. Henry VIII. Mary m. Brandon, 

yaw<?j Z/'^. of Scotland. Earl of Angus. | Duke of Suffolk. 

Edward VI. Mary. Elizabeth. | 

James V. m. Mary IMargaret ni. Stuart, Earl of Lennox. Frances m. 

I of Guise. I Henry Grey, 

D. of Suffolk. 

Mary, married -Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Jane Grey, 

I beheaded, 1554. 

James VI. of Scotland, afterwards James I. of England. 



Sovereigns of England are in Capitals., those of Scotland in Italics, 



CHAPTER V 



RISE OF THE DUTCH KEPL-RLIC. 




'E liave seen that tlie seventeen 
duchies, counties, and baronies, 
known collectively as the Nether- 
lands,--' or Low Countries, had 
all become subject to the French 
dukes of Burgundy (§§409-413). 
On the death of Charles the Bold, 
in 1477, Burgundy was reiinnexed 
to France, but the Netherlands, 
by the marriage of his daughter 
Mary to Maximilian, were trans- 
ferred to the House of Austria. 
No part of Europe was so fertile 
and prosperous as these Low 
Countries; none had so many 
thriving cities or such intelligent 
and industrious people. Their 
silks, velvets, woolen cloth, and 
fine armor were celebrated 
throughout Europe. Though ruled by one sovereign, each 
province had its own government, and their representa- 
tives were only now and then called together in the ''States 
General "' when Charles or Philip wanted money. 



Flemish Costume, 
XVII. Century. 



* These were the ducliics of Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, and 
Guelders ; the niargraratc of Antwerp ; the counties of Artois, Flanders, 
Hainault, Namur, Zutphen, Holland, and Zealand ; and the baronies 
of Mechlin, Utrecht, Friesland, Overyssel, and Groningen. 

Name these countries and their chief cities from Map No. 11. 
(224) 



THE PR I AXE OF ORAAGE. 225 

513. Charles V. had been born in (jhent, and was suj>- 
posed to favor his Flemish subjects, to the great discontent 
of the Spaniards. But he constantly violated the chartered 
rights of the provinces which he had sworn to maintain. 
By eleven successive edicts, and by the establishment of 
the Inquisition, Charles tried to stop the Reformation in 
the Netherlands, and many of his best subjects sealed their 
faith with their blood. 

514. Philip II. (^470) was a still more cruel bigot. He 
declared that he would lose a hundred thousand lives 

• rather than see any of his dominions severed from the 
ancient church. On his departure for Spain, 
Philip entrusted the regency of the Netherlands * '^^^ 
to his half-sister, the Duches^ of Parma. Among her 
councilors was William, Prince of Orange, then chiefly 
renowned for his vast wealth and illustrious descent, but 
soon to win a nobler fame by his self-denying patriotism. 

515. Philip's stern order of "death to heretics,' led 
many thousands to seek safety in other lands ( >i 506 ). 
The Prince of Orange, as governor of Holland and Zea- 
land, refused to permit the burning of his countrymen, 
and many nobles and citizens leagued themselves to demand 
a retraction of the hated edicts. The duchess was alarmed, 
but her council branded the petitioners as a "pack of 
beggars." The name was adopted by the nobles them- 
selves at a banquet, with shouts of merriment and cries 
of "Long live the Beggars I' 

516. Thousands of the people now began to meet in 
excited crowds, which broke into cathedrals, shattered the 
beautiful stained glass of their windows, and dashed the 
images to the ground. In a batde near Ant- 
werp, 1800 "Beggars" were slain. Philip now ' ' ^^ ^' 
sent the Duke of Alva, a pitiless monster, to put down 
resistance with fire and sword. Defying all the laws, he 
organized a "Council of Blood" in his own house, and 



2 26 MODERN HISTORY. 

summoned before it the chief opponents of the edicts. The 
Prince of Orange, now in Germany, refused to appear. 
Counts Egmont and Horn were tried and beheaded in the 
great square at Brussels, A. D. 1568. A decree of the 
Inquisition condemned the entire population of the Nether- 
lands, with a few special exceptions, to death ! Of course 
this was not literally executed, but it removed the protec- 
tion of law from all; and Alva boasted of 18,000 lives 
destroyed during his regency. 

517. Industry ceased; towns were deserted; all the 
Avealthy who could leave fled beyond the sea; many bold 
spirits took to privateering, and made the name of "Sea 
Beggars" a terror to Spanish sailors. Their prizes were 
at first carried into English ports; but, after four years. 
Queen Elizabeth forbade this for fear of involving herself 
in a war with Spain. The- Sea Beggars then seized Briel, 
the capital of Zealand, and made it the beginning of a 
new Republic. The four provinces of Holland, Zealand, 

Friesland, and Utrecht declared the Prince 

Tulv I^ 1^72, 

of Orange their lawful "stadtholder," or lieu- 
tenant, during the absence of Philip II. In 1573, Alva 
was succeeded by Requesens, a just man, who at least 
put a stop to indiscriminate murders. But the war still 
went on. 

518. The prince lost several Lattles, and, in 1574, his 
brother, Louis of Nassau, was slain near Nimeguen. But 
the spirit of the whole people was aroused, and their 
constancy was proved by th^ir heroic defense of Haarlem, 
Alkmaar, and Leyden, against the besieging forces of the 
Spaniards. Leyden was relieved only by cutting the dykes 

and letting the sea overflow the surrounding 

^^^''' country, that the fleet of the prince might 

approach its walls. At last the starving citizens were fed, 

and then all went in procession to the cathedral to thank 

God for His great deliverance. 



THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. 227 

519. The death of Reqiiescns, in 1576, was followed by 
new horrors; for his unpaid soldiery were set loose upon 
the cities, plundering, destroying, and murdering at their 
will. In Antwerp alone 1,000 houses were burned, and 
8,000 people were killed. Under this distress, the Prince 
of Orange persuaded all the provinces to unite themselves 
in the Pacification of Ghent, and afterwards in the still 
closer Union of Brussels. But, unhappily, the different 
parties could not agree; the union was dissolved, and the 
seventeen provinces were never reunited until 18 14. The 
prince, however, secured a permanent union of the seven 
northern states, under the name of the United Netherlands. 
Holland far excelled the others in power and wealth, and 
the whole confederation is commonly called the Dutch 
Republic. 

520. John of Austria, the hero of Lepanto (§561), was 
now intrusted, by Philip, with the government of the 
Netherlands. He gained a great victory at Gemblours, 
which almost annihilated the army of the States; but he 
died two years later, and was succeeded by Alexander of 
Parma, son of the former regent, and the geatest general 
of his time. In 1581, the thirteen Flemish and northern 
provinces formally cast off their allegiance to Philip II., 
and conferred their sovereignty upon the Duke of Anjou, 
brother of the French king, who solemnly swore to defend 
and maintain their liberties according to the charters. 
But he was a traitor at heart, and, upon his giving up 
Antwerp to be plundered by his soldiers, he was driven 
into France. 

521. In 1584, the Prince of Orange was murdered in 
his own house by a hired agent of Philip of Spain. This 
foul crime seemed a death-blow to the liberties of the 
Netherlands; for the wisdom, firmness, and incorruptible 
fidelity of the prince had been their only sure dependence 
amid dissensions within and dano;ers from without. But 



228 MODERN HISTORY. 

the blow aroused the States to the necessity of united 
action; and, on the very day of the murder, the represent- 
atives of Holland declared their resolution "to maintain 
the good cause, with God's help, to the uttefmost, without 
sparing gold or blood." 

522. The year following the prince's death was sadly 
marked by the fall of Antwerp. It had bravely withstood 
thirteen months' siege by Alexander of Parma; when it was 
taken, the ruined homes of its citizens supplied materials 
for a new fortress, while grass grew and cattle fed in 
streets which had been crowded with traders from all 
parts of the world. Antwerp had succeeded Florence 
(§369) as the banking center of Europe; this distinction 
now passed to London, whither great numbers of its bankers 
and merchants removed. 

523. In 1596, both England and France became allies 
of the States against Spain. Cadiz was taken and plun- 
dered, and many treasure-laden vessels from the Spanish 
colonies became the prizes of the Sea Beggars. The war 
was ended by the Peace of Vervins in May, 1598. A few 
days later, the ten southern provinces of the Netherlands 
were settled upon Philip's daughter Isabella and her hus- 
band; and, for fear that either should exceed the other in 
rank, both were styled '■'■ the Archduke s.^^ 

524. The eldest son of the Prince of Orange was a 
prisoner in Spain. The second son, Maurice of Nassau, 
succeeded to the command of the States' forces, and, as 
he grew to manhood, developed extraordinary talents for 
war. He gained the battle of Turnhout by the then novel 
device of arming his cavalry with pistols. At length, in 
1609, an honorable truce closed forty years' war with 
Spain, and secured to the Dutch Republic not only its 
undisputed territory at home, but the Spice Islands, and 
freedom of trade with both Indies. Not until forty years 
later, however, did Spain acknowledge its independence. 



DEATH OF PHILIP //. 229 



525. In 1598, Philip died. His 42 years' reign had 
begun in unexampled prosperity, and ended in disgrace. 
In 1580 he had conquered Portugal and added all her 
rich possessions in Asia and America (§§435, 436) to his 
own dominions, which now included one third of all the 
land on the globe. But he had ruined his realms by his 
stupid tyranny; and, with all the gold and diamonds of the 
New World at his disposal, he died a bankrupt. His son, 
Philip III., was a dull bigot, and though his dominion 
was still the greatest in Europe, it ceased to have a con- 
trolling part in the world's affairs. 

The United Netherlands were already the chief maritime 
nation in the world. Their sailors were the boldest and 
most skillful, their ships the best modeled; and a Dutch 
Indiaman would sail round the globe while a Spaniard or 
Portuguese was making only the outward passage to Asia. 
Naturally, therefore, the rich commerce with the Indies 
fell into the hands of the Dutch. They had a thousand 
vessels engaged in the Baltic trade, and nearly as many 
more in fisheries. Meanwhile the industry of farmers and 
manufacturers had made the Seven States the most pros- 
perous and productive portion of the European continent. 

Point out, on Map No. 11, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, Leyden, 
Amsterdam. The seven (northern) United Netherlands. The ten 
(southern) Spanish Netherlands. 

Read Motley's "Rise of the Dutch Republic" and "History of 
the United Netherlands." 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE STUARTS IN ENGLAND. 




Engli 



sh Costumes, XVII 
Century. 



PON the death of EHzabeth (§ 510) 
the crowns of England and Scot- 
land were united in James Stuart, 
a great grandson of Henry VII. 
1^ (see Table, p. 223), though the 
two countries had still their sepa- 
rate parliaments. James I. (A. D. 
1603- 1625) brought a new idea 
of royalty into England, namely, 
that of his "divine right" as the 
"Lord's Anointed" to overrule all 
laws. He told the House of Com- 
mons that it existed by the gracious 
permission of his ancestors, and 
would continue to exist only so 
long as it suited him. The king's 
slovenly, slouching person and un- 
dignified manners made a curious 
contrast to these high pretensions. 



527. James hated the Puritans, now a large party in the 
English Church, who desired some further reforms in the 
ritual; and he offended them by his "Book of Sports," in 
which he recommended public amusements on the Lord's 
day. Finding that they could expect no favor, nor even 
justice at home, several congregations, now deciding to 
(230) 



REIGN OF JAMES I. 231 



quit the established Church, took refuge in Holland. We 
owe to King James, however, our present 
authorized version of the Bible, which was 
made by a commission of learned men at his command. 

528. Several conspiracies disturbed the early years of 
this reign. One was the " Gunpowder Plot" of the dis- 
contented Papists, to blow up the Parliament houses, when 
all the members were assembled to hear the king's speech. 
It was detected in time, and Guy Fawkes, a paid agent 
of the conspirators, was put to death. In another and less 
atrocious plot, Sir Walter Raleigh was accused of having 
part. He was thrown into the Tower, where he beguiled 
twelve gloomy years of imprisonment by writing his His- 
tory of the World. Then, without removing his sentence, 
the king sent him to lead a perilous attack upon Guiana, 
Avhere Raleigh lost his son and all his fortune, and re- 
turned only to lay his head upon the block. ""Tis a 
sharp medicine," said he, with a smile, as he passed his 
finger along the executioner's axe, "but it is a cure for 
all ills." 

529. The reign of James is more honorably noted as an 
era of colonization. Thousands of Scottish settlers estab- 
lished their linen-making and other industries in the north 
of Ireland, which had been laid waste by Tyrone's Rebel- 
lion. The East India Company, w^hich had received its 
first charter from Elizabeth, set up a factory at Surat, in 
Hindustan. The earliest English town within the present 
limits of the United States bore the kini^'s 

A. D. 1607. 



name. At first idle adventurers flocked to 
Jamestown, expecting to find gold without labor, and they 
were nearly cut off by famine; but the energy and good 
sense of Captain John Smith brought about a better state 
of affairs. A different sort of adventurers landed, in 1620, 
on the rock-bound coast of Plymouth Bay. They were 
the refugees from Holland (§ 527), who had now resolved 



232 MODERN HISTORY. 

to found a new state, where they could bring up their 
children in the language and customs of their native land, 
while enjoying a freedom of worship which England would 
not afford. 

530. Europe was now trembling with the first shock 
of the Thirty Years' War. Frederic, elector-palatine, had 
married the English princess, Elizabeth, and looked to her 
father for aid in his resistance to the Austrian power 
(§§ 5^4» 566). But James seemed not even to understand 
the policy of his great predecessor, which made England 
the head of Protestant interests in Europe. He allowed 
Frederic to be driven, not only from his new kingdom of 
Bohemia, but from the home of his fathers; and Elizabeth, 
with her children, had to beg for shelter at foreign courts. 
James, meanwhile, was sacrificing his own dignity and the 
interests of his people for the sake of a Spanish marriage 
for his son, which, after all, was refused him. Charles 
married a Bourbon princess, Henrietta Maria, sister of 
Louis Xni. 

531. Charles I. (A. D. 1625- 1649) began his reign, 
without money, on the eve of war with Spain. The Com- 
mons distrusted him, and would grant supplies only for a 
year at a time. Charles thereupon dismissed them, and 
tried to raise money by forced loans and arbitrary taxes; 
but these unlawful proceedings offended the people more 
than they helped the king. His war resulted in failure; 
but he was soon led by his favorite Buckingham to aid 
the Huguenots of Rochelle against the armies of Louis 
XHL This, too, failed, and Buckingham was assassinated 
while preparing for a new attempt. 

532. In his domestic relations, Charles was worthy of all 
respect; but, in his acts as a king, he added his father's 
arbitrary temper to that falsity of character which had cost 
his grandmother her crown and her life (§ 505). The 
Parliament of 1628 demanded his assent to a Petition of 



THE LONG PARLIAMENT. 233 

Rights, before it would take up the question of supplies. 
The king signed this ''second great charter of English 
Freedom" (§ Z^z)^ ^'-it he violated it almost as soon as 
the Parliament had dispersed, by levying ''ship-money" 
on his own authority. 

533. John Hampden, a wealthy gentleman who had been 
twice a member of Parliament, refused to pay this tax, that 
he might bring the matter to a test before the courts. 
Seven of the twelve judges decided against him, because 
they dared not displease the king; but his bold resistance 
was q,n example and encouragement to the nation. 

534. Thomas Wentworth, earl of Strafford, who had at 
first resisted the king's demands, deserted the cause of 
the people and became a chief agent in oppression. Arch- 
bishop Laud carried the same spirit into matters of relig- 
ion, by restoring some Romish usages in worship which 
the mass of the nation regarded as idolatrous. The king 
wished to impose the same ritual upon Scotland, but here 
he met a sturdy resistance. The famous Cove- 
nant, signed partly with the blood of the writers, • ^ 3 • 
bound the whole Scottish people to oppose all "errors and 
corruptions" contrary to the reformed faith. 

535. In 1640, an army of the "Covenanters" invaded 
England, and threatened York, where the king was resid- 
ing. Charles was now compelled to summon the "Long 
Parliament," so called because it continued its sessions 
thirteen years. Before it would grant money, it impeached 
Strafford and Laud, abolished the Courts of Star Chamber 
and High Commission, which had become infamously cor- 
rupt, and ordered to trial all the tools of the king's oppres- 
sions. Strafford was beheaded; and Laud, after four years' 
imprisonment, suffered the same fate. 

536. A fierce rebellion broke out in Ireland, in October, 
1 64 1. The Scotch colonists (§ 529) were massacred or 

Hist.— 20. 



234 MODERN HISTORY. 

driven from their homes, and only Dubhn remained subject 
to the EngHsh. A rash attempt of the king to arrest five 
members of ParHament now plunged England into civil 
war. London and the great cities, with the Puritans, were 
generally on the side of Parliament; while the nobles and 
clergy and all the young cavaliers, who loved a gay life 
and hated Puritan strictness, took part with the king. 

537. Charles' cavalry was led by his nephew, Prince 
Rupert, son of that German elector who had tried to be 
king of Bohemia. In 1644, Parliament allied itself with 
the Scots, who sent an army to besiege York. In g. furi- 
ous battle on Marston Moor, Prince Rupert and the royal 
forces were defeated, and the next year Fairfax and Crom- 
well, the parliamentary generals, gained a still more de- 
cisive victory over the king's army at Naseby. 

538. Charles at length took refuge with the Scots, but 
he refused to sign the Covenant, and was therefore sur- 
rendered to the English Parliament. He was treated with 
respect, but all attempts at agreement came to naught. 
Charles would abate nothing of his "divine rights," while 
his opponents stood firmly for the liberties of the people. 
At length a court of one hundred and fifty judges was 
appointed to try Charles Stuart for treason in having 
levied war against the Parliament. He was condemned, 
and, notwithstanding the protest of the Scots, was beheaded 
at Whitehall, January 30, 1649. 

539. The Commonwealth. — The English Commons 
proceeded to abolish monarchy and all titles of nobility, 
and to proclaim the Commonwealth (A. D. 1649- 1660). 
The Scots crowned Charles the Second as their king, upon 
his signing the Covenant and declaring himself humbled 
and grieved in spirit for the sins of his father. Charles 
afterwards exacted a bitter revenge for the hypocrisy he 
had been made to practice. Cromwell and his "Ironsides" 
first subdued the Irish rebellion (§ 536), then gained a 



CROMWELL, PROTECTOR. 235 



great victory over the Scots at Dunbar and captured Edin- 
burgh and Leith. Charles seized the opportunity to slip 
into England, hoping that many royalists would join him, 
but he was disappointed, and so thoroughly de- 
feated at Worcester that he had to take refuge 
beyond the sea; while Scotland, Ireland, and the American 
colonies submitted to the Commonwealth. 

540. Parliament soon provoked a war with the neigh- 
boring republic of Holland, England's maritime rival. 
The English admiral Blake and the Dutch Van Tromp 
fought many obstinate battles, after one of which Van 
Tromp tied a broom to his masthead and sailed triumph- 
antly up and down the channel, showing his determina- 
tion to sweep the English from the seas. The war closed, 
however, with reverses to the Dutch, who consented to 
lower their flags whenever they met an English vessel. 

541. The Long Parliament had now become an in- 
sufferable despotism, but there was no power that could 
legally dissolve it. Cromwell undertook to do this by 
military force. Repairing to Westminster with a guard 
of soldiers, he reproached the members with their tyranny, 
ambition, and robbery of the people, and ended by crying 
out: "For shame! Get you gone! Give place to hon- 
ester men ! You are no longer a parliament ! " His sol- 
diers cleared the hall and locked the doors. He then 
summoned a new Parliament, in which, for the 

first time, the representatives of Scotland and 
Ireland sat with those of England. This Parliament con- 
ferred sovereign power upon Cromwell, with the title of 
Eord Protector for life. 

542. England now regained the respect which she had 
lost under the vacillating rule of the Stuarts. Cromwell 
demanded justice for the persecuted Vaudois as a condi- 
tion of his alliance with France against Spain. From the 
latter he wrested the rich island of Jamaica, and the im- 



236 MODERN HISTORY. 

portant harbor and fortress of Dunkirk. But Cromwell 
bitterly felt that his power was usurped and despotic. 
Some of his acts were more arbitrary than those for which 
Charles was beheaded. He, too, had levied taxes without 
consent of Parliament, and had imprisoned lawyers who 
appeared in defense of the victims. 

543. Assassins, paid by Charles II., constantly dogged 
his steps; the reproaches of his conscience, deepened, it 
is said, by those of his dying daughter, harassed his mind. 
A slow fever consumed him, and he died, on the anni- 
versary of his great victories of Dunbar and Worcester, 
September 3, 1658. His son Richard, though acknowl- 
edged as Protector, found himself unequal to the office, 
and resigned his place. No one was great enough, though 
several men were quite willing, to be intrusted with the 
government, and the dread of anarchy led the nation to 
welcome Charles II. as their king. 

544. The Restoration. — Charles II. (A. D. 1660- 
1685) entered London amid the clang of bells, the blaze 
of bonfires, and the shouts of a rejoicing people. He 
began his reign with amnesty to all political offenders, 
except a few who had been actively concerned in his 
father's death. The church was restored to the authority 
it had enjoyed under James I., and 2,000 dissenting min- 
isters were expelled from their parishes. Greater severi- 
ties were inflicted upon the Scots, who chose to meet for 
worship in lonely recesses of mountain and moor, rather 
than be false to their covenant. These congregations 
were often ridden down by the king's troopers, and men, 
women, and children were put to the sword. 

545. In 1664, a new war broke out with the Dutch, 
who lost their American province between the Hudson 
and Delaware rivers. It was conferred on the king's 
brother, James, duke of York, and the northern part has 
ever since borne his title. During this war two great 



REIGN OF CHARLES IT. 237 



calamities visited London — the Plague, which destroyed 
100,000 lives, and the Great Fire, which consumed 13,000 
dwellings and 90 churches. 

546. Charles, by this time, had disgusted his best friends 
by the shameful licentiousness of his court He dismissed 
his faithful chancellor. Lord Clarendon, who reproved his 
vices, and allowed his government to fall into the hands 
of unscrupulous politicians. He married a Portuguese prin- 
cess, Catharine of Braganza; but he treated her with rude 
neglect, and even allowed her to be insulted by his court- 
iers. He sold Dunkirk to the French to raise money for 
his idle pleasures, and actually accepted a pension from 
Louis XIV., to betray the religion and the independence 
of England. He was, however, compelled by Parliament 
to join in the Triple Alliance (§ 622) to restrain the aggres- 
sions of his too-powerful cousin. 

547. The duke of York, about this time, declared him- 
self a Romanist, and the king was, secretly, of the same 
mind, so far as he had any religion at all. The people, 
recalling the dangers of a hundred years before (§§ 505- 
508), were ready to believe the false stories of 

one Titus Oates, who told of a "popish plot" to 
kill the king and all Protestants, burn London, and crown 
the duke of York. The excitement became so great, and 
such rewards were offered for further evidence, that every 
day brought forth a swarm of new stories, each more atro- 
cious than the last. But, when the aged and estimable 
Lord Stafford was actually beheaded for supposed com- 
plicity in the "plot," remorse and grief took the place of 
credulity, and Oates was at last punished as he deserved. 

548. The "Rye-House Plot," A. D. 1683, was a real 
scheme to kill the king and his brother on their way to the 
Newmarket races. Its authors were common ruffians, who 
were easily detected and punished. Six nobles and gentle- 
men were at the same time planning some change in the 



238 MODERN IirSTORY. 



government, though their designs did not probably include 
either treason or murder. One was the duke of Mon- 
mouth, a son of the king and a low-born woman; another 
was Algernon Sidney, a noble-minded republican by theory, 
who had opposed the absolute power of Cromwell as well 
as that of Charles. Monmouth ran away, but was after- 
wards pardoned and received at court; Sidney and Lord 
Russell were tried, condemned, and beheaded on unproven 
charges of having had part in the Rye-House Plot. 

549. The names of "Whig" and "Tory" now first 
appeared in England, the former applied to the party 
which stood for the rights of the people; the latter, to 
that which accepted the Stuart notion of the absolute 
authority of kings. To the Whigs we owe the full estab- 
lishment of the Habeas Corpus Act, entitling 

■ ' ^^' every prisoner to a speedy trial, and thus pre- 
venting arbitrary imprisonments. This guarantee of per- 
sonal freedom is found in every nation which has derived 
its ideas of law and justice from England. 

550. The reign of Charles II. was a great era in 
science. Newton discovered the law of gravitation ; Boyle 
investigated the properties of the atmosphere; Hobbes and 
Locke discoursed of the human mind, its laws and rela- 
tions to matter. Meanwhile, Milton, in blindness and pov- 
erty, was composing the greatest epic poem in the language 
— Paradise Lost. He had been secretary to Cromwell, 
and devoted his splendid talents to the service of the 
Commonwealth. He was treated with contemptuous neg- 
lect by the courtiers of Charles, but later ages know better 
how to appreciate him. John Bunyan, tinker and preacher, 
during his twelve years' imprisonment in Bedford jail, wrote 
the "Pilgrim's Progress," which has probably had more 
readers than any other English book. 

551. Charles left no son entitled to succeed him, and 
his brother James (A. D. 1685-1688) accordingly became 



DETHRONEMENT OF JAMES II. 239 



king upon his death. Taking advantage of the popular 
fear of popery, the duke of Monmouth made a rash attempt 
to seize his uncle's crown. With his little army he met 
the king's forces at Sedgemoor, where he was defeated, 
made a prisoner, and condemned to the scaffold. A brutal 
revenge for this insurrection was taken by Kirke wMth his 
dragoons, and afterwards by Jeffreys, the drunken chief 
justice, who condemned innocent and guilty alike. 

552. The king soon took steps for the restoration of 
popery, and thrust into the Tower seven venerable bishops, 
who had ventured to remonstrate. The people had been 
patiently waiting for the king to die, that his daughter, 
\\\\o had married the Prince of Orange — great grandson 
of the liberator of the Netherlands (§§ 514-521) — might 
come to the throne. The birth of an English prince, in 
1688, disappointed this hope and hastened the Revolution. 

553. William of Orange was the leader of Protestant 
Europe against Louis XIV., as Elizabeth had been against 
Philip of Spain. The best men in England now joined in 
inviting him to come and deliver them from misrule. In 
November, 1688, he appeared with a fleet on the English 
coast, and both parties declared for him. The queen and 
her baby-son escaped to France, where the king soon 
joined them. Louis received them with kindness, main- 
tained a court for them and their needy followers, and sup- 
plied fleets and armies to enforce their claims in Ireland. 

554. Parliament conferred the crown upon William and 
Mary as joint sovereigns, and they set their seal 

to a new Bill of Rights, which established just 
relations between the people and the throne. The Scotch 
Parliament also acknowledged William and Mary, but in 
Ireland an immense majority held out for James, and 
there the deposed king landed w^ith a French force, and 
besieged Londonderry. The citizens bravely endured a 
three months' siege, though hundreds died in the streets 



240 MODERN HISTORY. 



from hunger and disease, and at length James had to 
withdraw. The last decisive battle was on the River 
Boyne, where both kings were present in person, and 
William was completely victorious. The last of James' ad- 
herents, in the highlands of Scodand, were destroyed in 
the Massacre of Glencoe — a wicked and needless act, for 
it occurred after their submission. 

555- Queen Mary II. died in 1694, and William III. 
reigned eight years as sole monarch of the three king- 
doms. England was drawn into his wars on the continent, 
which, for the first time, burdened her with a national 
debt. By the peace of Ryswick, 1697, the king of France 
recognized William as a rightful sovereign, and promised 
to give no more aid to the exiled Stuarts. He violated 
this engagement, however, and, on the death of James II., 
proclaimed his son as "King James III. of England, 
Scotland, and Ireland." The English nation felt itself 
insulted, and, in voting supplies for the war of the Spanish 
Succession (§ 628), Parliament begged the king never to 
make peace until Louis had atoned for this act. While 
preparing for the war, William suddenly died, March, 1702. 

556. Anne, second daughter of James II., was crowned 
at Westminster, April 23, and joined the emperor and the 
Dutch republic in a grand alliance against France and 
Spain, of which her great general, the duke of Marl- 
borough, was the moving spirit. The details of the war 
will be found in the chapter on France. In 1707, Eng- 
land and Scotland became one kingdom, under the name 
of Great Britain. Ireland kept her separate parliament 
until 1800, when the three kingdoms were united. 

557. Queen Anne's heart was, doubtless, better than 
her head, and she was easily controlled by those who 
were about her. The duchess of Marlborough ruled her 
for years with the tyranny which a strong mind sometimes 
exercises over a weak one, scolding the poor queen un- 



MAP No. XII. 




ilAP Ob' 



ERA OF QUEEN ANNE. 241 



mercifully for some little domestic arrangement, whicli the 
humblest woman might be allowed to make in her own 
house, but which the liaughty duchess chose to manage 
herself. At last she was dismissed from court, and her 
place in the queen's favor was taken by a Mrs. Masham. 
The duke was too justly accused of prolonging the war in 
order to make himself rich with army contracts. He was 
removed from command, and soon afterward the treaty of 
Utrecht restored peace to Europe. 

558. Queen Anne left no children, and, by a special 
act of Parliament, the House of Stuart was succeeded by 
that of Hanover. Perhaps it would have consoled the 
Electress Elizabeth (§ 530) in her poverty and exile, if 
she could have foreseen that her grandson would sit upon 
the throne of Great Britain. The prevalence of French 
taste may be clearly marked in the writers of Queen 
Anne's time, who are distinguished for neatness and polish 
of style, rather than for great thoughts or energetic feel- 
ing. Pope translated Homer's Iliad, and wrote his own 
moral Essays and Epistles, m the same stiff measure and 
artificial rhymes. Addison and Steele, two charming prose- 
writers, produced the Tatlcr and afterwards the Spectator — 
forerunners of our literary weeklies and monthlies. 

Read Green's Short History, Chs. VIII and IX. 

HOUSES OF STUART AND HANOVER. 

James I. 



Charles I. filizaiDeth m Elector-Palati 



Charles II. James II. Maty m. Pr. of Orailge. Sophia }n. Elector of Hanover. 

L I I 

Mary. Anne James Francis [\ 55^). WilLiam til. George I. 



Notice that the mother, as well as the wife, of Willliam III. was 
an English princess, and tliat he was himself the third in the line of 
succession to the crown. 
Hist.— 21. 



CHAPTER VII. 



THE HOUSE OP' AUSTRIA AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 



.^(liP^^J^ 




PON the abdication of Charles 
v., the Hapsburgs ^vere sepa- 
rated into a Spanish and a 
German branch — his brother 
Ferdinand becoming duke of 
Austria and emperor, while 
Philip reigned over Spain, 
Italy, and the Netherlands. 
Still the two branches usually 
acted in concert, and together 
continued to be the leading 
power in Europe. 

560. The main interest of 
Ferdinand's reign (A. D. 1558 
-1564), and that of his son, 
centers about the wars with 
the Turks, who now exacted 
a yearly tribute from the em- 
peror, and were fighting for 
the control of the Mediter- 
ranean. In 1565, Solyman 
(§§460-467) besieged Malta with an immense fleet and 
army; but the Knights of St. John defended it so bravely 
that he abandoned the enterprise and sailed away to Con- 
stantinople in a rage. Five years later, the whole island 
of Cyprus, for eighty years a possession of Venice, was 
conquered by the Turks, and all Europe was alarmed. 
(242) 




An Arquebusier. 



BATTLE OF LEPAXTO. 243 

561. A fleet of 300 Spanish and Venetian vessels were 
soon- assembled under the command of John of Austria, 
a half-brother of the king of Spain, and met the Turkish 
armament in the Gulf of Lepanto (see Map 4). 

The ensuing combat was perhaps the most im- 
portant naval battle of modern times; for it was the point 
where the Ottoman Empire, having reached its greatest 
power, began steadily to decline. The Turks lost 224 
ships, and 30,000 men. The great Solyman had died in 
1566, and his son Se'lim, who reigned till 1574, was weak 
and self-indulgent. 
• 

562. Ferdinand's son and successor, Maximil'ian II. 

(A. D. 1564- 1576), was one of the best monarchs of the 
ac;e. He ^rave relitiious libertv to his own dominions of 
Hungary and Bohemia, and steadily opposed the Jesuits, 
though his wife, a sister of Philip II. of Spain, was willingly 
ruled by them. His son. Ru'dolph II. (A. I). 1576-1612), 
on the contrary, expelled all Lutherans from his hereditary 
states. The laws of the empire did not permit persecution 
in Germany, but the bigotry of Rudolph prepared the way 
for the most terrible war of religion on record. He was 
a weak-minded and superstitious man; but his belief in the 
magical influences of the stars was of some use, for it led 
him to endow an observatory at Prague, where the great 
astronomers, Kepler and Tycho Brahe, pursued their studies 
of the heavens. 

563. Europe was again alarmed by the progress of the 
Turks under Moham'med III., a monster who had secured 
his possession of the throne by murdering his nineteen 
brothers. In a three days' battle at Keresztes, 

fifty thousand Christians were slain; but the war 
resulted unfavorably to the Turks, and the treaty which 
ended it dispensed with any further tribute from the em- 
perors, who were now named by their proper titles instead 
of beinc: called '-Kinos of Vienna" as before. 



244 MODERN HISTORY. 

564. The long weak reign of Rudolph ended in 16 12, 
and his brother Matthi'as became emperor; but the crowns 
of Hungary and Bohemia were soon resigned to Ferdinand 
of Styria, their cousin. The Bohemians revolted against 
Ferdinand, threw his council out of the window of the 
castle at Prague, and ultimately chose Frederic, the elector- 
palatine, a son-in-law of James I. of England, to be their 
king. This was the first act in the Thirty Years' War, in 
which almost every nation in Europe was engaged, though 
Germany was the chief sufferer. 

565. The old enmity between the reigning houses of 
France and Austria led the former to take an important, 
though at first a secret, part in the war. Richelieu's shrewd 
management strengthened the Protestant cause, and aided 
the king of Sweden, who soon appeared as its champion. 
Wal'lenstein, the imperial general, was the most singular 
character of his time. He believed that a great destiny 
was written for him in the stars; and his soldiers followed 
him with the blindest obedience and confidence, as if all 
the forces of heaven and earth were on his side. The 
magic of his name drew about him 50,000 volunteers, 
whom he maintained, without expense to the emperor, by 
turning them loose upon the unhappy people, whose homes 
and fields they ravaged. 

566. King Frederic was not only driven from Bohemia 
by Ferdinand's troops, but lost his dominion on the Rhine, 
and ended his life in exile and poverty. Ferdinand, on the 
death of his cousin Matthias in 1619, received the imperial 
crown. The first years of the war favored the imperialists. 
Wallenstein and his freebooters swept over the Protestant 
states, leaving a broad track of misery and desolation be- 
hind them. The king of Denmark, who came to the aid 
of the Protestants, was driven back even to his islands in 
the Baltic — his dominions on the mainland being occupied 
by the emperor's forces. With the aid of the king of 



GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 245 

Sweden, he was able, however, to relieve the fortress of 
StralsLind, before whose walls Wallenstein lost nearly half 
his army. Soon afterward the Diet insisted upon the dis- 
missal of Wallenstein for his brutal tyrannies and extor- 
tions, and Count Tilly was appointed as his successor. 

567. In 1630, Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, in- 
vaded Germany. His army, unlike that of Wallenstein, 
respected all the rights of the people, paying honestly for 
whatever food it required. One by one all the fortresses 
of Pomerania and Mecklenburg were either taken, or will- 
ingly surrendered to the Swedish king. The electors of 
Saxony and Brandenburg, descendants of the great leaders 
of the Reformation, were neither al)le to fill their place at 
the head of Protestant Germany, nor willing that any other 
should fill it. Angry because the people looked to Gus- 
tavus as their great deliverer, they refused him their aid, 
and even resisted his progress, so that he was compelled 
to leave the ancient city of Magdeburg to the vengeance of 
Count Tilly and his brutal Croats and Walloons. 

Thirty thousand citizens were massacred, and the ' ' ^ ^'' 
entire city, excepting the cathedral, was consumed by fire. 

568. Tilly then ravaged and plundered Saxony; and the 
smoke of two hundred burning villages at length made the 
Elector willing to join his forces to those of the king of 
Sweden. The great victory of Leipsig was the result, in 
which the imperial army was wholly dispersed or de- 
stroyed. All Germany lay open to Gustavus; he might, 
apparendy, have marched to Vienna, captured the emperor, 
and received for himself the crown of the Coesars. The 
Austrian courtiers no longer laughed at the "Snow-King," 
who, at his head-quarters in Mentz, on the Rhine, was 
surrounded by a brilliant array of ambassadors and princes. 
Ferdinand was reluctantly compelled to recall AVallenstein, 
who, with haughty insolence, accepted command only on 
the condition that the entire military power of the empire 



246 MODERN HISTORY. 



should he ]>laccd in liis liands, and that neither the em])eror 
nor any of his family should come near the army. 

569. The last victory of Oustavus was at I.utzen, where 

Wallenstein and his troojis were defeated, but 
' ' ^^' the great king was slain. 'J'he Sjjanish and 
Austrian governments ordered public rejoicings for his 
death, as a victory to their cause; but the rest of the 
world mourned the loss of the noblest character of the 
time. Tiie Protestant states of Germany chose the Swed- 
ish chancellor Ox'enstiern to succeed his master as the 
protector of their interests, while Duke Bernhard of Weimar 
became their military chief. 

570. It was soon evident that Wallenstein meant to make 
himself king of Bohemia. Instead of bringing him to a 
just and open trial for this treason, the emperor ordered a 
secret assassination, and the foul deed was performed by 
some of Wallenstein's own officers. King Ferdinand of 
Bohemia, the emperor's eldest son, assumed chief command 
of the army, and, in the summer of 1634, inflicted a ruinous 
defeat upon the Swedes at Nordlingen. The elector of 
Saxony, and most of the other j)rinces, soon made peace 
with Ferdinand; and the imijerial armies invaded I'>ance, 
though with little success. 

571. In 1637 the emperor died, and was succeeded by 
his son Ferdinand III., a more liberal and peace-loving 
prince. Yet the war went on, and its last years were more 
hideously brutal than even its beginning. The Swedes had 
lost the perfect discii)line of Gustavus Adoljjhus, while the 
German soldiers lived wholly by plundering the wretched 
]>eople. Hunger was the great weapon constantly em- 
ployed, each army destroying all the food it could not 
eat, for the purj^ose of starving its oj)ponents; and, of 
course, women, children, and helpless men suffered more 
than the soldiers. In Bohemia alone more than a thou- 
sand castles and villages were burned. 



TREATY OF WESTPHALIA. 247 

572. At last all i)arties were sufficiently worn out to 
unite in an earnest effort for peace. Two congresses were 
ojjened at Miinster and Osnabruck, one for the Catholic 
and one for the Protestant powers; and, after five years' 
labor of embassadors from nearly all nations of Europe, 
the treaty of Westphalia was signed. Spain 
recognized the United Netherlands after eighty ^' ' "''^' 
years' struggle as an indejiendent republic. The son of 
r'rederic V. was restored to his elecl(;rate (^^566). Relig- 
ious freedom was guaranteed to all the (ierman states. 
Many imperial powers were now bestowed ujjon the Diet, 
which was hereafter to meet, at stated inlerxals, at l''rank- 
fort, instead of attending the emperor whenever and where- 
ever he chose to call it. 

573. The Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist, excei)t 
in name; and 300 sovereign and sejjarate states, each with 
its distinct coinage, constitution, and laws, existed between 
the Alps and the Ijallic. One could hardly travel a day, 
even in the slow coaches of that jjcriod, without paying 
duties at several custom-houses, which marked the bound- 
aries of as many governments. The peace of Westi)halia 
was an imj^ortant turning point in the history of Europe — 
ending 130 years of religious strife, and marking the decline 
of the Spanish and Austrian Hapsburgs. A few years later 
saw an immense increase in the i)ower of France. 

Find the silos of all the sieges and battles mentioned in this 
chapter. Wliere is Westphalia? Saxony? Brandenburg? Mecklen- 
burg? Tonierania? iJoheniia? Point out the separate dominions 
of the two branches of the Ilapslnu-gs. 

Read Schiller's "Thirty Years' War;" Dyer's History of Modern 
Europe; and, for illustration of tlie times, Schiller's three-fold (bania 
of Wallenstein, translated by Coleridge. 



CHAPTER VIIT. 

EUROPEAN COLONIES. 




HE bold explorers of the fifteenth and sixteenth 
centuries were followed by a more patient and plodding set 
of men, who founded permanent settlements in the newly 
discovered lands. 

The Hindu peninsula was already the seat of a great 
empire (§ 377), and of a swarming population far more 
skillful and industrious than their European visitors. Here, 
then, was no room for colonization; the Portuguese, and, 
after them, the Dutch, French, and English, had to con- 
tent themselves with a few trading factories guarded by 
forts. 

(24S) 



SPAA'/ARDS IN AMERICA. 249 

575. Jesuit missionaries opened the way for Portuguese 
traders into China and Japan. Macao Avas given them by 
the Chinese emperor, and continued in their possession 
until it became a free port, in 1846. The Japanese seem 
to have been less favorably impressed by their first ac- 
quaintance with Europeans, for, in 1637, the government 
ordered a general massacre of native Christians and the 
expulsion of all foreigners, while natives were forbidden to 
leave the country. For more than two centuries Japan 
shut herself up from all the world; but in our day she 
has suddenly opened her doors and welcomed not only 
trade, but the most familiar intercourse with the western 
nations. 

576. The great rich domain of Brazil, in South America, 
was divided, by the king of Portugal, into extensive fiefs, 
called captaincies. By their subjection to Spain (§ 525), 
the Portuguese lost their whole eastern dominion, and, for 
a time, that of Brazil; but the latter was regained and at 
length became an independent empire, ruled by a branch 
of the royal family of Portugal. 

577. Spain treated her colonists in the New World in 
the most selfish and despotic manner. They were forbid- 
den to make their own clothes, furniture, tools, or even 
some necessary articles of food; for all these things must 
be bought of the mother-country. They were not per- 
mitted to build ships, nor to trade with the colonies of 
other nations. Once a year a merchant fleet from Spain 
brought whatever they were supposed to need, in exchange 
for American products; and the colonists must pay what- 
ever their masters chose to ask, or lose all opportunity 
to dispose of their merchandise. Their governors were 
natives of Spain, who had no interest in the colonies ex- 
cept to enrich themselves as soon as possible. Under 
such bondage, it is needless to say that the Spanish col- 
onies did not flourish ; and, though they have now 



250 MODERN IIIS70RY. 



secured their independence, the people are still lacking in 
enterprise. 

578. Doubtless, this stupid tyranny was fortunate for 
the European Protestants of the sixteenth century : for ^a 
wise and liberal system of government would have drawn 
enormous wealth from these vast and rich domains, and 
Charles V. and Philip 11. might, indeed, have been lords 
of the world (§§ 444, 525). But, then, if Spain had been 
either wise or liberal, she would not have chosen to crush 
the Reformation, to ruin the Netherlands, or to deprive 
herself of the industry of the Moors and Jews (§ 434). 

579. The false theory that gold and silver only consti- 
tuted wealth led to a compcirative neglect of the fertile 
soil of the colonies, and to stringent edicts against export- 
ing the precious metals from Spain ; while the decay of 
industry left the Spaniards very little to buy at home; and 
so their gold would have been nearly useless if the edicts 
had not been disobeyed. It must be confessed that the 
Dutch and English shared the same erroneous ideas. 
Their colonies were supposed to exist only for the benefit 
of the parent state, and were narrowly watched lest they 
should grow too prosperous. 

580. Though the whole western continent, with the ex- 
ception of Brazil, had been given to Spain by Pope Alex- 
ander VI., France and England made good their claim to 
a large share of North America. The beautiful meadows 
of Acadia, now Nova Scotia, were settled by French [peas- 
ants about 1604; Quebec was founded in 1608, and Mon- 
treal in 1640. The French policy was to treat the Indians 
like friends and brothers, and so secure their aid. They 
slept in the wigwams of the savages, ate of their loath- 
some food, and fought their battles with the terrible fire- 
arms which were sure to give victory over those who 
encountered them for the first time. 

581. In this way, with an Algonquin war-party, Samuel 



FOUNDING OF NEW YORK. 2$ I 



Champlain, in 1609, explored the beautiful lake which now 
bears his name, and encountered the Iroquois of central 
New York. At another time he penetrated the Canadian 
wilderness to the headwaters of the Ottawa and to Lake 
Huron, gaining a host of savage allies. La 
Salle explored the Mississippi River from its 
source to the Gulf of Mexico; and caused a loud-voiced 
herald to proclaim that the "most high, mighty, invincible, 
and victorious prince, Louis the Great, king of France and 
Navarre," was lord of all the country from which the great 
river drew its waters. His attempt to colonize "Louisi- 
ana" — so the whole vast region was called in honor of 
Louis XIV. — resulted in a sad failure. 

582. The first settlement within the present limits of 
the United States was made by French Protestants, in 
1564, under the patronage of Coligny (§ 480). It was 
exterminated by Spaniards from St. Augustine ; but the 
recollection of the attempt led many exiled Huguenots to 
seek homes in the Carolinas, when, in 1685, the revocation 
of the Edict of Nantes deprived them of safety at home. 

583. Early in the seventeenth century, Henry Hudson, 
in the service of the Dutch RepubHc, while looking for a 
north-west passage to India, discovered the river which 
now bears his name. The Dutch West India Company 
undertook to colonize the "New Netherlands," including, 
under that name, the whole tract between Chesapeake 
Bay and Connecticut River, which Hudson had explored. 
A fort and a few huts were built on Manhattan 

Island, for purposes of trade with the Indians, 
and hence grew, in time, the greatest city of the western 
hemisphere. A settlement of Swedes on the Delaware was 
conquered and absorbed into New Netherlands ; but soon 
afterwards the whole Dutch territory was ceded to the 
English (§ 545), who divided it into the colonies of New 
York and New Jersey. 



252 MODERN HISTORY. 

584. The English colonies in America were founded, 
mainly, by private enterprise, and owed nothing to the 
home government except the land which they occupied. 
They covered only a strijD of Atlantic coast from the 
St. John's River to the Penobscot; but, though far less 
extensive than the French settlements, they were, at the 
close of the seventeenth century, more populous and flour- 
ishing. Each of the thirteen colonies had its House of 
Assembly chosen by the people, like the "Commons" at 
home; while the royal power was represented by a gov- 
ernor appointed by the king. 

The oldest colony was Virginia, so named in honor of 
Queen Elizabeth, though it was not permanently founded 
until the reign of her successor. Its capital city, as well 
as the river by which it stood, bore the name of James I. 
Among the earliest adventurers in Virginia were many 
young cavaliers, who had ruined their fortunes by a self- 
indulgent life, and hoped to find gold and jewels enough 
in the New World to make them rich again. These hopes 
were, of course, doomed to disappointment, and the colony 
was nearly destroyed by famine and the hostility of the 
natives; but, as soon as industry and good sense took the 
place of idle speculation, Jamestown began to flourish. 

The New England colonies were founded in no expec- 
tation of sudden wealth. The first pilgrims willingly ac- 
cepted lives of toil, hardship, and peril for the sake of 
"freedom to worship God" in a manner which their con- 
sciences approved. It must be confessed that they some- 
times denied to others the religious freedom which they 
had taken such pains to require for themselves. But relig- 
ious liberty grew by all these trials. The colony of Rhode 
Island was founded by an exile from Massachusetts. 
Rhode Island has the honor of the first distinct enactment 
that no man should be disturbed, or in any way called in 
question, on account of his religion ; and Maryland was 
not long in following the good example. In his colony 



EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. 253 

on the Delaware, the Quaker, William Penn, put in prac- 
tice the just and peaceable principles of his sect. He 
dealt with the Indians as if they had been Christians like 
himself; and so well did the savages appreciate his confi- 
dence that no Quaker settlement ever suffered from their 
attacks. 



SYNOPSIS OF EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS 
BEFORE A. D. 1700. 

Pofiugucse : — Madeira, 142 1 ; the Azores, 1432; Malabar Coast, 
1498; Cochin, 1503; Goa, 1510; Ormuz, 1515; Macao, 
1517; Bombay, 1530; Gold Coast (Africa), 1610; 
Brazil, 1501-1530; Capital at Bahia, 1549. 

Spanish: — Canaries, 1405; Hayti, 1495; New Grenada, 1510; Cuba, 
1511; Venezuela, 1520; Mexico, 1521 ; Nicaragua, 
1522; Peru, 1532; Quito, Guayaquil, and Buenos 
Ayres, 1535; Santiago de Chili, 1540; Philippine 
Islands, 1566; Porto Bello, 1584. 

French: — Nova Scotia, 1604; Quebec, 1608; Montreal, 1640; 
Guiana, 1604; Senegal, 1637; Pondicherry, 1674. 

Dutch: — Guiana, 1580; Spice Islands, 1607; Java, 1612; Gold 
Coast, 161 1; New Amsterdam, 1614; Curasao, 1634; 
Mauritius, 1644; Cape of Good Hope, 1650. 

British: — Surat, 1612; Madras, 1639; Bombay, 1662; Guiana, 
1630; Gold Coast, 1661 ; Virginia, 1607 ; Massachu- 
setts, 1620, New Hampshire, 1623; Connecticut, 
1635; Rhode Island, 1636; North Carolina, 1653; 
South Carolina, 1670; Pennsylvania, 1683. 



Read Robertson's "America;" Parkman's "Pioneers of France 
in the New World;" and Bancroft's "History of the United 
States," Vols. I, II, and III. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE NORTHERN KINGDOMS. 




D 



i^EXMARK, Sweden, and Norway were 
in 1397 united under one queen, 
Margaret Waldemar. Her successor 
was less fortunate; he lost all three king- 
doms, and ended his days as a pirate. 
Christian of Oldenburg reunited Marga- 
ret's dominions, and his family continued 
to rule Denmark more than 400 years; 
but the barbarous tyranny of his grandson 
occasioned a revolt in Sweden, and the 
rise of a new royal race, with Gustavus 
Vasa as its founder. This young noble- 
man had suffered grievous wrongs from 
Frederic the Great. ^^^ ^^Xero of the North" — his father hav- 
ing been beheaded for no crime, and himself imprisoned. 
He escaped, and, putting on the coarse garments of an ox- 
driver, hid himself among the peasantry until he could raise 
an army of volunteers, with which he defeated 
the Danes, captured Upsala, and restored the 
independence of Sweden. The Diet then declared him 
king, and made the crown hereditary in his family. 

586. His great grandson was the hero of the Thirty 
Years" War (JiJ^ 564-569). The early death of Gustavus 
Adolphus, upon the field of Lutzen. left the crown to his 
little daughter, Christina, then only six years old. As 
she grew up, Christina displayed wonderful talents and 
accomphshments, but no steadiness of purpose. She was 
(254) 



IVAN THE TERRIBLE. 255 



soon tired of governing; and, bestowing her kingdom upon 
her cousin, Charles X., spent the rest of her life in aim- 
less wanderings. 

587. The vast but ill-governed realm of Poland held 
discordant elements enough to keep not only itself but all 
its neighbors in a perpetual stir. The kings were elected, 
and had little power compared with the nobles. These 
were entitled to levy armies and make war whenever any 
proceeding of king or diet failed to please them; and, 
naturally, war went on almost all the time. The powerful 
neighbors of Poland — Sweden, Denmark, Brandenburg, 
Russia, and Austria — found many occasions to interfere 
in her affairs at the invitation of one or another ])arty; 
and at length, as we shall see, the last three named divided 
her whole territory among them. 

588. Russia, after a hundred years' fighting, was made 
free from her Mongol oppressors (§376), about A. D. 1481, 
by I'van III. Still she was only an inland grand duchy, 
less powerful than Poland or Bohemia — very different from 
that mighty empire which now occupies nearly half of 
Europe and all northern Asia, while her victorious armies 
have almost reached the borders of India. The Black Sea 
was still surrounded by the dominion of Turkey, the Baltic 
and its gulfs by that of Sweden; and it was a hundred 
years later that an entrance for English traders into Russia 
was effected through the Arctic Ocean, by the new port 
of Archangel. 

589. Under Ivan the Terrible, the first "Czar of Mus- 
covy" (A. D. 1538-1584), Kazan and Astrachan were 
taken from the Tartars; and the vast frozen plains of 
Siberia, extending eastward to the Pacific, were added to 
the Russian dominion. Ivan's son, Fe''odor, was last of 
the line of Ruric (§327), and his death was followed by 
years of civil war. In A. 1). 1613, Michael Ro'manoff, 
ancestor of the present Czar, came to. the throne. 



256 MODERN HISTORY. 

590. His grandson, Feodor II., having no children, and 
passing over his incompetent brother Ivan, bequeathed his 
crown to his half-brother Peter, a bright but obstinate boy 
of ten years. Though Ivan was too feeble to protest, his 
sister Sophia interfered in his behalf, and managed to have 
the two crowned as joint sovereigns, with herself as regent. 
Even in boyhood I^eter perceived the needs of his empire, 
and resolved to redeem it from barbarism, and give it a 
high rank among the European states. He studied dili- 
gently, and practiced himself in all that he wished his 
people to know. He drilled in the ranks of a new com- 
pany of soldiers, with which he meant to replace the 
Strelitz, or imperial guard, which had become too powerful; 
and he attended so closely to all the details of his little 
navy, that he became "the best carpenter, the best pilot, 
and the best admiral in the North." 

591. Still further to educate himself, he resolved to visit 
the western nations. Traveling as a servant in one of his 
own embassies, he arrived in Holland, and engaged as a 

ship-builder in one of the dock-yards of Am- 
' ^^^''' sterdam. Here he toiled, in rough clothes, 
among the other workmen, obeyed orders, and received 
his weekly wages like the rest. In England he took less 
pains to disguise his imperial rank, and was treated with 
friendly attention by William III. (§555). 

592. On his homeward journey he heard of a new revolt 
planned by his sister, and hastened to put it down with 
cruel severity. Sophia was immured in a convent, the 
Strelitzes were disbanded, and Peter's new regiments took 
their jjlace. Then came a struggle for reform, in which 
the Czar had need for all his ol)stinacy, to overcome the 
superstitions and fixed notions of his people. The long 
robes and bushy beards of the men were cut short by im- 
perial decree; for, in small things as in great, Peter meant 
that his own will should control all the millions who called 



PETER THE GREAT. 257 



him lord. In essential matters, he met less resistance; 
colleges, foundries, factories, and frigates were soon created, 
and one great war-vessel was built by the Czar himself. 
Having thus taken measures to civilize his empire, Peter 
thought the time had come to give it an outlet to the 
Baltic. 

593. Charles XII. was now king of Sweden — an am- 
bitious youth, whose favorite hero and model was Alexander 
the Great (§§160-164). His accession, in 1697, when 
only fifteen years old, tempted three powerful neighbors 
to increase their dominions at his expense. The Czar 
besieged Narva with 80,000 men while Charles 

was engaged in a war with Denmark. But this ' '^°*'' 

war ended sooner than Peter had expected, and Charles, 
with only 8,000 men, came to the relief of his beleaguered 
town. The Russian troops were mostly barbarians, clothed 
in skins of wild beasts, and armed with arrows and clubs. 
The Czar's magnificent train of artillery was useless, for 
want of gunners. He suffered a ruinous defeat, his entire 
army being killed or captured. 

594. Peter had that rare wisdom which can learn of 
an enemy, and draw strength even from disaster: "The 
Swedes will defeat us for a time," said he, "but in the 
end they will teach us how to conquer them." Charles 
turned aside to conquer Augustus of Saxony, who was king 
of Poland, but whom he succeeded in dethroning. Peter 
seized the land he wanted near the Gulf of Finland, trans- 
l)orted thither 300,000 peasants from all parts of his empire, 
and, among the marshes formed by the Neva, laid the 
foundations of his splendid new capital, St. Petersburg. 

595. Having disposed of Poland, Charles invaded Russia 
with a great army. Here cold, hunger, and the fatigues 
of marching through forests and bogs made sad havoc 
with his troops; and at Pultawa he met his first defeat 
(A. D. 1709). Jioth sovereigns were i)resenl. ('harles was 

Hist —22. 



258 MODERN HISTORY. 

carried on a litter, being disabled by a wound; but when the 
battle was lost, he mounted a horse and made his retreat into 
Turkey. He soon persuaded the Sultan to join in war against 
the Czar, whose ambition he had reason to fear. Peter, march- 
ing to meet the immense Turkish force, was disappointed by 
his allies, and found himself in almost as dangerous a case as 
was Charles at Pultawa, surrounded by superior numbers, 
cut off from supplies, and unable to advance or retreat. He 
was saved by the adroitness of his wife, the Empress Cath- 
erine, who, presenting all her jewels to the Grand Vizier, 
managed to secure a peace favorable to the Czar. 

596. Charles remained more than five years in Turkey, 
a troublesome and unwelcome guest, while his kingdom, sur- 
rounded by many enemies, was going to ruin for want of its 
head. At last he was forced to depart, and made the whole 

journey on horseback in sixteen days. Arriving 

' '^''^' at Stralsund, he ordered war to be prosecuted 

more fiercely than ever. But his good fortune was now 

exhausted; he lost all his territories east and south of the 

Baltic, and met his death while besieging a town in Norway. 

597. Peter's untiring perseverance wrought immense 
benefits to his country, and justified his new title. Emperor 
of all the Russias; while all subsequent times have agreed 
with his own in styling him Peter the Great. Before his 
death he bestowed the crown upon his wife, who reigned 
two years alone as the Empress Catherine I., (A. D. 1725 
-1727). This remarkable woman had been a Swedish 
peasant, and was one of the many prisoners taken by the 
Russians at the capture of Marienburg. She became a 
servant in the house of Prince Menschikoff — himself once 
a baker-boy — where the Czar saw her, and soon recognized 
a quickness and firmness of mind equal to his own. She 
aided him in all his plans, while her even temper was 
able to soothe the violent fits of anger to Avhich he too 
often gave way. 



THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 259 

5q8. Prussia was conquered by the Teutonic Knights 
(§361) about A. D. 1231-1243. They redeemed it from 
a wilderness of marshes and thickets, and gradually civilized 
its pagan and half savage inhabitants. After a long series 
of wars with Poland, a large part of its territories were 
absorbed into that kingdom, while the Grand Master had 
to do homage for the rest; but, in 1526, Prussia became 
an independent duchy, and, in 16 18, it was annexed to 
Brandenburg. 

599. After the Thirty Years' War had passed by, like a 
desolating storm, the able management of the ''Great 
Elector," Frederic William (A. D. 1640- 1688), restored 
prosperity to the country. He gave lands and homes to 
20,000 French refugees from the persecutions of Louis 
XIV. (§626), and their industry converted the sandy wastes 
about Berlin into gardens and orchards. Many of the 
exiles, too, were learned and accomplished people, whose 
language, literature, and manners brought refinement hith- 
erto unknown into Prussian society. 

600. The son of the Great Elector was made King 
Frederic I. of Prtissia by the Emperor Leopold, who wanted 
his help in the War of the Spanish Succession. Prussia 
was already a great military power, and it became still 
greater under Frederic William L, its second king (A. D. 
1 7 13 -1 740). He was a morose and insufferable tyrant — 
so penurious that his children went away hungry from his 
table, and so violent of temper that he threw the plates 
at their heads if they dared to complain. He flogged his 
son, the crown-prince, when eighteen years old, before the 
eyes of his future subjects; and when the prince attempted 
to escape to foreign parts, he was imprisoned as a deserter, 
and would probably have been shot if the emperor had 
not interfered. 

601. One of the king's whims was to have a brigade of 
the tallest grenadiers in Europe, and he took the greatest 



26o MODERN HISTORY. 

pains to collect them from all the northern countries. 
Every man was more than six feet high, and some even 
approached eight feet. If any king wanted to please 
Frederic William, he sent him a present of the tallest man 
he could find. His recruiting agents were always on' the 
watch, and once they made a serious mistake Vjy kidnap- 
ping the imperial embassador ! The most humble apologies 
were made, for the only being on earth that the king 
stood in awe of was the "Caesar." For all this, Frederic 
William was an honest, shrewd, and generally well-meaning 
man; and he left his kingdom in much better condition 
than he found it 

602. Frederic II., the Great, was the most noted general 
of his times; and his wars began the long contest between 
Austria and Prussia, which has lately ended in making the 
latter supreme in Germany. He came to the throne in 
May, 1740, and the next autumn the direct male line of 
the House of Hapsburg ended with the emperor Charles 
VI. Having no son, Charles had tried to secure his 
hereditary dominions to his daughter, and the imperial 
crown to her husband, Francis of Lorraine. The daughters 
of his elder brother had a better right; but, during his 
lifetime, Charles obtained their consent, and that of most 
of the European sovereigns, to his "Pragmatic Sanction," 
which arranged the succession as he wished it. 

603. No sooner was Charles dead than most of the 
powers forgot their promises. Frederic II. marched into 
Silesia, and soon made himself master of it; while the 
electors gave the imperial crown to Charles Albert of 
Bavaria, nephew of the late emperor. Maria Theresa was 
in a perilous position. Great Britain was her only ally, 
while Prussia, Poland, Sardinia, and the three Bourbon 
courts of France, Spain, and Naples were against her, 
beside many of the German states. Her cousin was in- 
stated as archduke of Austria and king of Bohemia. 



FREDERIC THE GREAT. 26] 



604. Taking refuge in Hungary, Maria Theresa presente'd 
herself, with her infant son in her arms, before the assembly 
of nobles, and asked their aid in regaining her rights. 
Though they had many causes of complaint against her 
house, the brave princes were moved by the sight of their 
young sovereign in her beauty and distress. The great 
hall rang with their shout, "Let us die for our king^ Maria 
Theresa!" One hundred thousand men were soon under 
arms : not only were Austria and Bohemia recon(|uered, 
but Munich, the capital of Bavaria, was taken, and the 
emperor Charles VII. was expelled from his own heredi- 
tary dominions. 

605. In 1745 he died, and Francis of Lorraine then 
received the crown of Charlemagne. The "War of the 
Austrian Succession" was ended three years later by the 
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Though formally at peace, 
the empress-queen cherished a bitter resentment against 
Frederic of Prussia, who had .seized the moment of her 
distress to rob her of her province of Silesia; and she 
deeply laid her plans to combine all continental Europe 
against him. Russia, Sweden, Saxony, and France — the 
latter ultimately joined by the other Bourbon kingdoms 
(§603) — took sides with Austria. 

606. Frederic struck the first blow by a sudden invasion 
of Saxony. I'he Austrians, coming to its relief, were 
defeated at Lowositz, and the entire Saxon army then 
surrendered to him, most of its common soldiers enlisting 
in his service. Pushing into Bohemia, Frederic gained a 
great victory over Prince Charles of Lorraine, the em- 
peror's brother. Still his affairs were so desperate — his 
whole dominion overrun by enemies eager for its destruc- 
tion — that he at one time almost decided to give up the 
single-handed contest, and end his days by poison. He 
took braver counsel, rallied his few remaining forces, and 
by his brilliant victories of Rossbach and Leuthen, A. I). 



262 MODERX HISTORY. 

1757, astonished the world. Mr. Pitt (§644), becoming 
premier in Great Britain, sent a liberal supply of the sinews 
of war; a wild horde of Russians, Cossacks and Calmuck 
Tartars, was defeated at Zorndorf. 

607. Yet greater dangers and disasters were in store for 
Frederic. Three Austrian armies surrounded him in Silesia, 
while an overwhelming force of Russians occupied Berlin, 
destroyed its arsenals and foundries, and plundered its 
citizens. His genius and resolution did not fail. He de- 
feated the Austrian generals one by one; and Russia was 
soon changed from an enemy to a devoted friend. The 
Empress Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the Great, 
died in 1762, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter HI. 
The young Czar had a romantic admiration for Frederic, 
and immediately stopped the operations of his armies in 
Prussia. The "Seven Years' War" was ended early in 
1763, having cost nearly a million human lives, without 
making any change in the boundaries of the warring nations. 
Prussia kept Silesia, the original cause of dispute, and took 
her place among the great powers of Europe. 

608. Peter III. had reigned scarcely six months, when 
his wife caused him to be deposed and assassinated, and 
herself assumed the crown as Catherine H. Though so 
wicked a woman, the Czarina had extraordinary talents for 
governing. She perfected many reforms which Peter the 
Great had only begun; made herself the leader of the 
northern nations: dismembered Poland; conquered the 
Tartars of the Crimea — the last of the Mongol hordes 
which had once enslaved Russia (§376); and established 
her power on the Black Sea. 

609. Maria Theresa, the Austrian empress-queen, was still 
living, but her son, Joseph H., had succeeded his father 
as emperor of the West. Catherine's ambitious movements 
alarmed both him and Frederic the Great, lest Poland and 
Turkey were to be swallowed up by Russia. Austrian and 



PARTITIONS OF POLAND. 263 

Prussian armies were marched into Poland, and the Czarii-^^, 
unable to seize the whole prize herself, signed a treaty by 
which a third part of the Polish territory was divided 
among the three powers. Maria Theresa resisted the un- 
just scheme as long as she could, and at last signed the 
treaty with the following protest: '''Placet, 



A. D. 



177; 



because so many great and learned men will 

it; but when I am dead, the consequences will appear of 

this violation of all that has hitherto been held just and 

sacred." 

610. After her death, two successive "partitions com- 
pleted the work of spoliation, and Poland, as a kingdom, 
ceased to exist. The Poles made heroic efforts to preserve 
their independence; their general, Kosciusko, after fighting 
many battles, was captured and immured in a Russian 
dungeon; the last king was compelled to abdicate, and 
the central part of the kingdom, with the capital, became 
a mere province of Russia. Catherine the Great died one 
year after the completion of this crime, of which the main 
guilt rests upon her. 



'''Literally, "It pleases me" — the form in which emperors and 
kings usually gave their consent to laws and treaties. 

Point out the dominions of Margaret Waldemar. Of Gustavus 
Adolphus. Of Peter the Great at his accession. Of the present 
Czar. The old and the new capital of Russia. The Polish capital. 
That of Sweden. Of Prussia. The dominions of Maria Theresa. 
The province conquered from her by Frederic the Great. Pultawa, 
Stralsund. 

Read Voltaire's "Peter the Great" and "Charles the Twelfth," 
Carlyle's "Frederic the Great," and Dyer's "Modern Europe." 



CHAPTER X. 



THE BOURBONS IN FRANCE. 



'ENRY IV. (A. 1). 1589-T610) 
the first of the royal House of 
Bourbon, came to the throne 
in the midst of a civil war. 
Though the nearest heir to the 
monarchy, he was only eleventh 
cousin of the last king; and, as 
hereditary leader of the Hugue- 
nots, he encountered violent 
opposition from nearly all ad- 
herents of the old church. The 
League (§484) was strong in 
the support of Philip of Spain, 
wiio wanted the French crown 
for his daughter, and who had 
at his command the greatest 
general and the finest soldiery 
in the world. Nevertheless, 
Henry gained a brilliant victory over the forces of the 
League at Ivry, and his generous and gallant character 
drew many even of the Catholic nobles to his side. 

6i2. Paris was besieged by the royal forces, but Henry 

would not let his people starve. Food was carried in, 

and the city was thus enabled to await the arrival of the 

Spanish army. In 1593, Henry reconciled himself with 

(264) 




Prince of Conde. 



HENRY IV, AND SULLY. 265 

the Roman Church, and soon obtained by management 
what he had been unwiHing to gain by force. Being at 
length victorious over all his enemies, he pro- 
claimed universal toleration in the Edict of ' ^^^ ' 
Nantes, and thus ended the religious wars of a third of a 
century. 

613. Aided by his great minister, Rosny, duke of Sully, 
Henry undertook to redeem France from the poverty and 
misery occasioned by so many years of misrule. Under 
their careful management, tillage, trade, and fine manu- 
factures soon began to flourish, and the people enjoyed a 
prosperity such as neither they nor their fathers could 
remember. A favorite scheme with Henry was the hum- 
bling of the House of Austria; and to this end he wished 
to league all Europe in a great Christian commonwealth, 
in which each power should have only its due share of 
importance, and disputes should be settled by reason rather 
than by arms. As a first contribution toward this balance 
of power, he resigned the French claims upon Italy, which 
had been the cause of so many wars (§§404, 408, 445). 

614. But on the eve of his departure for the Nether- 
lands, the great king was assassinated by a frantic Jesuit. 
His queen, Marie de Medici, became regent for her son 
Louis Xni. (A. D. 1610-1643), who was then only nine 
years old. Herself an Italian, and ruled by Italian favorites, 
the queen wholly changed the policy of the government. 
She made a close alliance with Spain, marrying her son 
to the Spanish infanta, and her daughter to the crown- 
prince, afterwards Philip IV. The treasures, which Henry's 
good management had collected, were squandered upon 
her worthless favorites, while Sully retired from the council. 
When he was sixteen years of age, Louis took the govern- 
ment into his own hands, caused Concini, his mother's 
chief tool, to be put to death, and called some of his 
father's old councilors about him. 

Hist. —23. 



266 MODERN HISTORY. 

615. The great Cardinal-minister, Richelieu, was now 
rising into power. Like Henry IV. and Sully, he aimed 
to abate the proud ascendency of the Hapsburgs; and to 
this end he constantly aided the Protestants of England, 
Holland, and Germany, though, for political reasons, he 
made war against those of France. We have seen that 
the great Huguenot chiefs had made themselves almost 
independent during the wars of the League (§484)- They 
coined money and executed justice like sovereign princes; 
indeed, the inefficiency of the last of the Valois had made 
it quite necessary that some strong hand should repress the 
robbery and violence that everywhere prevailed. France 
had almost fallen apart into the great duchies and counties 
that held its territories in the time of Hugh the Great 

(§338). 

616. Richelieu was far more a Frenchman than a Roman 
cardinal. He put down the feudal chiefs, but he had no 
disposition to persecute the Huguenots. He besieged and 

captured Rochelle, their stronghold, but he 
' ^ ^^ ^ ^ ' confirmed the people in the free exercise of 
their religion, and renewed the Edict of Nantes. Other 
Huguenot towns submitted, and all fortresses not needed 
for the defense of the country against foreign enemies were 
ordered to be leveled with the ground. 

617. Not satisfied with ruling France, Richelieu took a 
leading part in the affairs of Europe. In the Thirty Years' 
War, France was an important actor, though secretly at 
first, through money and counsel supplied in equal measure 
to the Swedish king; and by the peace of Westphalia she 
was confirmed in the possession of Lorraine and Alsace, 
with several fortresses on the upper Rhine. But before 
this, in 1643, Richelieu and his king had both died, and 
Louis XIV., at the age of five years, had come to the 
throne, under the regency of his mother, Anne of Austria, 
and her chief minister. Cardinal Maz'arin. 



THE FRONDE. 267 



618. We come, now, to the greatest era of the French 
monarchy — a reign of seventy-two years (A. D. 1643- 
17 15), during which France became the leader of the 
world in art, literature, and social refinement; while her 
king's ambition seemed almost to threaten his a])solute 
and universal dominion. At its beginning, Conde was 
gaining brilliant victories over the Spanish forces in the 
Netherlands; but the expenses of war and a luxurious 
court soon drove the Parisians into a civil strife, called 
the Fronde, which raged for several years. 

619. Conde thought his great services Avere slighted by 
the regent, and, after being driven from Paris, actually 
accepted a commission from the king of Spain to lead 
those armies which he had lately conquered. Mazarin, on 
the other hand, knew little, and cared less, concerning 
the laws of the land which he undertook to govern; while 
he disgusted the people by his greed for gold. He was 
several times dismissed, but soon recalled to office, while 
the young king and his mother, hiding in a suburb of 
Paris, often went cold and hungry, owing to the impossi- 
bility of collecting taxes. The Fronde was ended in 1652, 
and Mazarin was soon reinstated. 

620. The war in the Netherlands favored France, and 
in the treaty of the Pyrenees, which closed it, 

r. . , , .. . - . , A. D. 1659. 

Spam gave up the proud preemnience Avhich 
she had held ever since the days of Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella. It was agreed that the French embassador should 
walk before the Spanish at every foreign court where both 
countries were represented — a precedence which Louis 
thought so important that he was ready to go to war upon 
its least infringement. 

621. Upon the death of Mazarin, in i66is the king, who 
was now 23 years of age, announced to his council — 
"For the future, I shall be my own prime minister." 
He at once undertook the actual business of governing, 



268 MODERN HISTORY. 

and, though fond of pleasure, he thenceforth devoted many 
hours every day to the routine of affairs. He detected the 
frauds of the finance-minister, Fouquet, and condemned 
him to a dungeon for Hfe, while he put the honest Colbert 
in the vacant place. Colbert was able to lighten the taxes, 
and yet keep the king's treasury full, by encouraging all 
useful industries and, thus, multiplying sources of wealth. 

622. Louis had married a Spanish princess, and, upon 
her father's death, in 1665, he marched into the Nether- 
lands, declaring that the ten provinces, with Luxemburg 
and Franche Comte, belonged, of right, to her. This 
bold movement was checked by a triple alliance of En- 
gland, Holland, and Sweden, which forced Louis to sign 
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. His wrath was chiefly ex- 
cited by the little republic of Holland, which had wrested 
her own freedom from the iron hand of Spain, and now 
was able to protect her late oppressor. 

623. He first bribed England and Sweden to withdraw 
from the alliance; then, with his army of 200,000 men, he 
marched into the States, occupied Guelders, Utrecht, and 
Overyssel, and encamped within sight of Amsterdam. The 
Dutch stood alone against all the world, but the temper 
which had been proved in eighty years' war with Spain 
was not likely to yield to the groundless demands of 
France. The young Prince of Orange, now at the head 
of affairs, proposed that in the last extremity they should 
give back Holland to the sea, and, embarking with wives 
and children on their immense merchant fleet, seek new 
homes on the opposite side of the globe. 

624. The dykes were cut near Amsterdam; the ocean 
flowed over the fertile fields, and the fleet was able to 
surround and defend the capital. Spain and the empire 
soon sent aid to the States, and the war became general. 
On the Rhine and in the Mediterranean, the French 
were still victorious; and when peace was finally made at 



LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 269 

Nimeguen, A. D. 1678, the glory of the "Grand Monarch" 
was at its height. In contempt of his treaty, he went on 
"reuniting" territories, on the pretense that they had once 
belonged to the dominion of the Franks ! Among the rest, 
the free imperial city of Strasburg was thus appropriated, 
and the skill of Vauban, the famous military engineer, 
soon made it a fortress of surpassing strength. 

625. After the death of his Spanish queen, I.ouis mar- 
ried Madame de Maintenon, a woman of good sense, who 
wrought a great reformation in the court. Uniiappily the 
king conceived the idea that he could atone for his sins 
by persecuting his Protestant subjects. The Huguenots, 
though no longer a political party (§§478, 615), numbered 
several millions, and were now the most useful and orderly 
class in France. Colbert had especially encouraged them 
on account of their skilled industries; but Colbert was 
now dead. The war-minister, Louvois, by the king's order, 
quartered troops of dragoons in all the provinces, who 
abused the defenseless people at their will. 

626. This "dragonnade" was followed by the revocation 
of the Edict of Nantes (§612). The churches of the 
Huguenots were ordered to be demolished, their ministers 
exiled, their children deprived of all instruction save that 
of the parish priest. Those who resisted the decree were 
shot without mercy. Half a million of the persecuted 
people found means of escaping. Other countries, in 
Europe and America, gained what France lost, and most 
of them still bear marks of the improvements they owe to 
the exiled Huguenots. 

627. Perceiving the French king's blunder, his great 
enemy, the Prince of Orange, who was now king of En- 
gland (§513), stirred up a grand alliance against him. It 
comprised the emperor and the chief German states, with 
England, Holland, Sweden, Spain, and Savoy. The war, 
which soon broke out, was conducted with the greatest 



270 MODERN HISTORY. 



brutality by the French on the Rhine. Louis ordered his 
o-enerals to burn every village which they could not garri- 
son; and 100,000 people were thus made homeless in a few 
weeks. His own subjects were suffering no less cruelly from 
starvation, owing to the ruinous wastes of war. At length, 
ministers from all the European nations met at Ryswick, 
in Holland, and, in 1697, concluded a treaty of peace. 

628. It was soon broken by the "War of the Spanish 
Succession," which for thirteen years taxed the energies 
of Europe,, and extended all around the globe. Charles 
n. of Spain died in 1700, leaving no children, but be- 
queathing all his dominions to Philip of Anjou, grandson 
of Louis XIV. Now it happened that the Emperor Leo- 
pold was just as nearly related to the Spanish family as 
was the King of France (see Table, p. 283). In alliance 
with England and Holland, he proclaimed his second son, 
the archduke Charles, king of Spain. The English Duke 
of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy gained 
splendid victories over the French at Blenheim, Ramillies, 
Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. England became mistress of 
Gibraltar, the strongest fortress in the world, and of the 
island of Minorca, a second key to the Mediterranean. 

629. ''Louis the Great" was at length completely hum- 
bled. His people were starving, while the wealth and life- 
blood of his kingdom were poured out on foreign battle- 
fields. Year after year he begged for peace, offering larger 
and larger concessions, but the allies did not trust him, 
and the war went on. At length, in 171 1, the emperor 
Joseph died, and his brother Charles was elected to suc- 
ceed him. The allies had gone to war to prevent Bourbon 
supremacy in Europe, but they had no mind to see the 
head of the Hapsburgs ruling Spain, Italy, and the empire, 
as in the days of Charles V. (§§424, 444). 

630. Eighty embassadors of the several powers now met 
those of France at Utrecht, in Holland (A. D. 17 13), and. 



THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME. 271 

after more than a year's deliberation, articles of peace were 
signed. The next year, a conference at Rastadt settled the 
points in dispute between France and the empire. Philip 
V. was recognized as king of Spain and the Indies, but 
all the Spanish possessions in Italy and the Netherlands 
were ceded to Charles VI. 

631. Louis XIV. died in 17 15, a weary old man, be- 
reaved of all his children and most of his grandchildren, 
and disappointed in that glory which had been the idol 
of his life. With his last breath he charged his great- 
grandson and successor to undo the mischiefs he himself 
had done, and be content with his rightful dominions. 

632. The age of Louis XIV. was the most brilliant period 
in French literature. The tragedies of Corneille and Racine, 
the comedies of Moliere, the "Letters" and "Thoughts" 
of Pascal, the fables of La Fontaine, the sermons of Bossuet, 
Bourdaloue, Fenelon, and Massillon, are unsurpassed in 
their different kinds of excellence. The good Fenelon was 
tutor to the younger dauphin, and wrote the story of 
Telem'achus for the benefit of his pupil. 

633. Louis XV. (A. D. 1 7 15 -1774) was only five years 
old at his accession, and the regency was bestowed on the 
Duke of Orleans, a nephew of the late king. France was 
buried in debts, and the regent gladly consented to a 
scheme of Law, a Scotch banker, to pay the bondholders 
with paper money, representing shares in the "Mississippi 
Company." A fever for speculation now began to rage. 
The less people knew, the more they imagined concerning 
the wealth of the North American continent : lords, ladies, 
princes, and prelates crowded to buy shares, and the public 
debt vanished as by magic. But suddenly it was found 
that there was no real money to meet these 

paper promises to pay, and thousands of fancied 
millionaires awoke to beggary. During the excitement, a 
company of emigrants founded the city of New Orleans^ so 



272 MODERN HISTORY. 



named in honor of the regent, and this was the only last- 
ing result of the "Mississippi Scheme." 

634. Louis married Maria Leczinska, daughter of an 
exiled king of Poland, and, in 1733, undertook the "War 
of the Polish Succession," in a vain attempt to restore him 
to the throne. Still more important was the War of the 
Austrian Succession, in which all Europe was engaged, 
and which extended to the colonies in Asia and America. 
France gained nothing by it, while her already hopeless 
debt was increased by $250,000,000. Even the gay and 
thoughtless courtiers of Louis XV. felt that they were 
dancing on the edge of a precipice. The fair promise of 
the king's youth had been broken by selfish dissipation: 
the control of his kingdom rested now in the hands of the 
Marchioness de Pompadour, a bad though tolerably bright 
woman, who was persuaded by the flatteries of Maria 
Theresa to plunge that exhausted kingdom into a seven 
years' war with Prussia. The latter had England for an 
ally, while the three Bourbon kingdoms of France, Spain, 
and Naples united in a "Family Compact." 

635. The war began in America. France claimed the 
entire basins of the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and 
attempted to guard them by a chain of forts reaching from 
Quebec to New Orleans. The kings of England, on the 
other hand, had given charters for lands running west- 
ward from the Atlantic to the Pacific; and collisions soon 
occurred on the head-waters of the Ohio. In America the 
contest was known as the French and Indian War, because 
the savage allies of the French often attacked English 
settlements, burned their villages, and either dragged away 
mothers and children through the snow, or murdered all 
the settlers with their tomahawks. This horrid warfare 
was successful at first, but, in the end, the forts on the 
Ohio and St. Lawrence were taken by the English. In 
1760, General Wolfe, with a small British force, scaled the 



LOUIS XVI. OF FRANCE. 273 



rugged Heights of Abraham, and captured Quebec, the 
strongest natural fortress on the western continent. 

636. The treaty of Paris, 1763, left all boundaries in 
Europe unchanged, but deprived France of her whole 
American dominion. The northern part became British 
America, while the Mississippi Valley was ceded to Spain, 
to pay for her losses by the Family Compact. 

637. Louis XV. died in 1774, leaving a starving people 
and a treasury in hopeless ruin. His grandson, Louis 
XVL, was a young man of the best intentions, but of no 
great energy of mind or will. He had married the Austrian 
archduchess, Marie Antoinette, who, though beautiful and 
kind-hearted, was not a favorite with the people. She was 
known to share the despotic temper of the Hapsburgs, 
and to urge her husband to arbitrary measures. 

638. Great sympathy was felt in France for the Ameri- 
cans in their struggle for independence (§§650-652), and 
the king was reluctantly compelled to declare 

war against Great Britain. It was a dangerous 
step, for, great as were the grievances of the Americans, 
the French, at home, had infinitely more to complain of, 
and naturally began to think of asserting their rights. 

639. Several finance-ministers tried, in turn, to diminish 
the national debt, and relieve the general poverty; but 
abuses were too deeply rooted in the constitution of the 
state. The nobles and clergy, who owned two-thirds of 
all the land in France, paid no taxes; and so the whole 
burden of the government rested on those who had no 
voice in making or executing the laws. At length, A. D. 
1789, the States-general were called, for the first time in 
175 years, and with their meeting, at Versailles, the great 
French Revolution may be said to have begun. 

Read Dyer's Modern Europe; Martin's History of France. 



CHAPTER XI. 

GREAT BRITAIN UNDER THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

EORGE LEWIS, elector of Han- 
over,* became king of England, 
in 1 7 14, by an act of Parliament, 
which excluded all papists from 
the throne. He naturally favored 
the Whigs, to whom he owed his 
crown ; while the Tories, or Jaco- 
bites, as they were now called, in- 
clined to Prince James (§§552, 
555), whom his sister. Queen Anne, 
would gladly have named as her 
successor. The prince invaded Scot- 
land, with a small French force, the 
next year, but without success; and, 
after the death of Louis XIV., the 
Regent (§633) made a close alli- 
ance with England, Holland, and 
the Empire, to keep the peace of 
Europe. The Stuarts, driven from France, kept up a 
cheerless show of royalty in their poverty-stricken court 
at Rome. 




A Grenadier. 



*See Table, p. 241. The electorate of Hanover was conferred, in 
1692, on the father of George I., a duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, 
who married a daughter of Frederic, elector-palatine, and the En- 
glish princess, Elizabeth. The House of Brunswick was one of the 
oldest and most powerful in Germany, being a branch of the Guelf 
family (§363), whose estates, in the twelfth century, extended from 
the Danube to the Baltic. 
(274) 



HANOVERIANS AND STUARTS. 275 

641. George I. felt and acted more as a German prince 
than as a British king, much to the displeasure of his new 
subjects. His reign was marked by many wild specula- 
tions in finance, among them the "South Sea Bubble," 
which closely resembled the Mississippi scheme in France 
(§^33)- When the crash came, bringing poverty to a 
multitude of paper-millionaires, a strong reaction set in, and 
Robert Walpole, a sensible country squire, who had opposed 
the scheme from the first, was placed at the head of the 
government, a position which he held twenty-one years. 

642. George I. died in Hanover, 1727, and his son, 
George H., became king. Under Walpole's thrifty ad- 
ministration, the country rapidly advanced in industry 
and wealth. In the "War of the Austrian Succession" 
(§§602-605), England was the steadfast friend of Maria 
Theresa. The king and his son were both present in the 
battle of Dettingen, 1743, by which the French were driven 
out of northern Germany. 

643. The last attempt of the Stuarts to regain the Brit- 
ish throne was led by the "Young Pretender," Charles 
Edward, son of James Francis, who invaded Scotland in 

1745. His brave and gallant bearing attracted many young 
Scots : Edinburgh was taken by surprise, and a grand ball 
was given at the palace in honor of King James the 
Eighth. A substantial victory, at Prestonpans, gave the 
Pretender the cannon which he needed ; the French 
government, now believing in his certain success, sent 
arms and money, and he boldly invaded England. But 
the English, however little they loved their dull German 
king, dearly loved the prosperity which they had begun to 
enjoy, and felt no obligation to risk all for the Stuarts. 
Few joined the prince, while the superior forces of the 
Hanoverians began to close around him, and he retreated 
to Scotland. He was finally defeated at Culloden, in 

1746, and escaped beyond the seas. 



276 MODERN HISTORY. 

644. wSeveral colonies were founded during this reign. 
In honor of die king, Gen. Oglethorpe gave the name of 
Georgia to his settlement on the Savannah River, which 
he had planted chiefly to provide homes for orphans, and 
for refugees for conscience' sake. The efforts of the Ohio 
Company to setde lands west of the Alleghanies, led to a 
collision with the French. In an attempt to capture Fort 
Duquesne, Gen. Braddock and his British regulars were 
defeated by Indians, and only saved from utter destruc- 
tion by the cool bravery of Washington. The fort was 
subsequendy abandoned by the French, and the English 
renamed it Forf Pitt, in honor of the firm friend of 
America, AVilliam Pitt. The next year forts Niagara and 
Ticonderoga, and the yet more important fortress of 
Quebec, were also taken by the Bridsh. 

645. These colonial contests were part of the Seven 
Years' War, to which — or rather to the energetic policy 
of Mr. Pitt — three great empires may trace their rise. 
British conquests from the French in Hindustan laid the 
foundations of the vast Indian Empire; the share taken 
by the thirteen American colonies in the war led to the 
independence of the United States ; and, by enabling 
Prussia at a most critical moment to withstand the hos- 
tility of all continental Europe, the rise of the present 
German Empire may have been rendered possible. 

646. George III. (A. D. 1760- 1820) succeeded his 
grandfather while the Seven Years' War was in progress. 
It was closed by the treaty of Paris, 1763, in which 
France ceded to England all that is now British America, 
while Spain gave up Florida in exchange for Havana 
and the Philippine Islands, which had been taken by the 
English. 

647. The early years of this reign were marked by a 
wonderful increase in the power of newspapers. John 
Wilkes, in his journal, the N'orth Briton, attacked the 



REIGN OF GEORGE I IT. 277 

policy of the government ; and the king's favorite minister, 
the Earl of Bute, was compelled to resign. Wilkes was 
imprisoned for his boldness ; but this despotic action only 
brought more clearly to light the need of a free press for 
the security of a free government; and, thus, an important 
step in constitutional liberty was gained. The London Times 
was established January i, 1788. 

648. The king, though well-meaning, was obstinate and 
narrow-minded; and his subjects, both at home and in the 
colonies, had to look well to their rights. The French 
and Indian War had added immensely to British posses- 
sions, but it had also added to the public debt; and it 
was now proposed to tax the three kingdoms and the 
colonies alike to meet the expense. This was quite right 
as far as the British people at home were concerned, for 
the tax was levied by their own representatives; but the 
colonists had no seats in Parliament; and as Englishmen 
they claimed their rights, conceded as long ago as the 
reign of Edward I., in refusing to pay a tax which they 
had no share in imposing. 

649. Pitt, the Great Commoner, declared, in parliament, 
that the colonists were right ; but the king hated Pitt, 
whose ill-health, moreover, withdrew him, about this time, 
from public affairs, so that the Americans lost this pow- 
erful friend at court. Lord North's ministry 
repealed all taxes, excepting that of three pence 

a pound upon tea. But it was the principle, not the 
pence, that the colonists were contending for. Most of 
the tea-ships were sent back to England with their cargoes 
untouched ; while the Bostonians, in their excitement, dis- 
charged several shiploads into their harbor. 

650. The American Revolution. — A British army 
was now sent over, and the war began with a skirmish 
at Lexington, Massachusetts, April, 1775, in which the 
'^red-coats" were put to flight. In the Battle of Bunker 



278 MODERN HISTORY. 

Hill, on the other hand, the Americans were dislodged 
from their position ; but their valiant resistance had amazed 
their opponents, and commanded new respect for colonial 
character. A congress of all the colonies had now met in 
Philadelphia to take measures for the common defense; 
and George Washington became general-in-chief of the 
American forces. 

651. The colonists had desired nothing more than their 
just rights as British subjects, but the king's harshness 
compelled them to go farther, and, in July, 1776, the 
Declaration of Independence was signed at Philadelphia. 
During that summer the British, under Lord Howe, cap- 
tured New York, which they kept until the end of the 
war. The next year Philadelphia, too, fell into their 
hands, though Washington earnestly tried to save it by 
the battle of the Brandywine. The winter which followed 
was the hardest period of all to the colonists; and the 
struggle of the weakest nation in the world against the 
strongest seemed utterly desperate. 

652. Nevertheless, the tide had already turned in favor 
of American independence. Burgoyne, descending with a 
fresh army from Canada to join Lord Howe, was defeated 

near Saratoga and surrendered his whole 

October, 1777. vi -^ j ^ ^ r^ 

army with its cannon and treasures to Gen- 
eral Gates. France, Spain, and Holland soon made 
friendly treaties with the United States, and the fleets of 
all three nations attacked British ships and settlements in 
all parts of the globe. The main actions of the following 
years were in the southern states; and, in October, 1781, 
the war was virtually ended by the surrender of Lord 
Cornwallis, with his whole command, at Yorktown, in 
Virginia. In September, 1783, a treaty of peace was 
signed at Versailles, by which George HI. acknowledged 
the independence of his late colonies, now the United 
States of America. 



771 E PRINCE REGENT. 279 

653. England took a leading part in the wars following 
the French Revolution, but these will be described in 
another connection (Ch. XIII). It is no wonder that the 
excitements and responsibilities of that eventful time over- 
came the mind of the king. After reigning 

fifty years he became insane, and the regency 
of the kingdom was committed to his son, who was after- 
wards King George the Fourth. 

654. The wars of the French Revolution burdened 
Great Britain with a debt of four thousand millions of 
dollars, which pressed, most heavily, upon the working 
classes. At the same time the use of steam in manufac- 
tures threw thousands of worthy people out of employ- 
ment, while the price of food was raised by the Corn 
Laws, which prohibited the importation of grain. For 
many years the government had a difficult task in dealing 
with the popular discontent under these miseries, which it 
could not at once remove. 

655. George III. died in 1820, and the Prince Regent 
became king. His only child, the Princess Charlotte, was 
already dead, and his ill-treated wife, Caroline of Bruns- 
wick, did not long survive his accession. George IV. was 
a selfish and profligate king, spending the money of his 
starving people on the most frivolous amusements. For- 
tunately, the government really rested in better hands 
than his. Some liberal measures were carried by his 
ministers; notably, that of "Catholic Emancipation," 
removing disabilities which had existed ever since the 
time of Charles II. (§544). There was no longer any 
danger of the Pope's ruling England; and it was seen 
to be wrong that millions of people in Ireland should 
be unrepresented in Parliament merely on account of their 
religious belief. 

656. Many Englishmen, of whom Lord Byron was most 
distinguished, took part in the Greek revolution, which 



28o MODERN HISTORY. 

delivered the land of Pericles and Plato, after four hun- 
dred years' degrading servitude to the Turks. The gov- 
ernment at last followed their lead, and, in alliance with 
France and Russia, defeated the Turkish fleet in the Bay 
of Navarino (§722). 

657. In 1830, William IV. succeeded his brother. His 
seven years' reign is noted as the period of long-needed 
parliamentary reform. Since the apj^lication of steam to 
machinery, many towns had grown immensely in wealth 
and population, but had no voice in the government to pro- 
tect their rights; while some ancient boroughs, once im- 
portant, had lost all or nearly all their inhabitants, but, 
as they were entitled to representation, their seats in par- 
liament were filled by the appointment of some great 
landed proprietor, who thus had far more power than was 
just. In 1832, fifty-six of these '^ pocket-boroughs" were 
abolished, and one hundred and forty-three seats were 
distributed among the great towns, while the right to vote 
was extended to every man who owned property or paid 
rent to a certain small amount. 

658. One of the first acts of the reformed Parliament 
abolished slavery in all the British colonies. Wilberforce 
and others had succeeded, in 1807, in putting an end to 
the slave trade. Improvement was also made in the Poor 
Laws, so that a laborer could seek employment beyond the 
limits of the parish in which he was born. 

659. In 1837, the crown of Great Britain and Ireland 
passed to Victoria, daughter of the duke of Kent, while 
that of Hanover was inherited by her father's younger 
brother (see Table, p. 283). Many troubles beset the three 
kingdoms and their dependencies. Canada was in revolt, 
Jamaica nearly so, a commercial war was on the eve of 
breaking out with China, and the discontent as home was 
greater than ever, owing to scanty harvests and the high 
jjrice of food. Riotous meetings were held near the great 



THE CRIMEAN WAR. 281 

towns, demanding a repeal of the Corn Laws, and some 
radical changes in the government. 

660. The cold, wet summer of 1845 injured the grain 
crop all over Europe and blighted the potato in Ireland. 
A terrible famine was the consecjuence, carrying off thou- 
sands of the Irish peasantry and leaving whole parishes 
uninhabited. In 1846, parliament repealed all duties upon 
articles of food, and gradually the discontent died away 
in a better condition of the people. 

661. In 1840, the queen married Prince Albert of Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha, a truly "blameless prince," who, seeking 
neither honors nor power for himself, devoted his rare 
talents to promoting the success and happiness of her 
reign. Among other enterprises which he aided, was the 
first "World's Fair," for which a "Crystal Palace" was 
erected in Hyde Park, London, A. D. 1851. 

662. Her alliance with the new French Empire (§§738, 
739) plunged England into the Crimean War, the object 
of which was to protect Turkey against the aggressions of 
the Czar Nicholas. The Turks had a prophecy that their 
dominion in Europe was to fall just four hundred years 
from the time of its establishment (§379). When that 
year of fate arrived, the Czar, who coveted 
Constantinople, proposed to the British gov- 
ernment to share the spoils by seizing Egypt and Crete. 
This was refused, and Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, English 
ambassador at Constantinople — whom the Czar spitefully 
called the "English Sultan" from his influence over the 
Turks — was warned to watch the Russian movements. 

663. Nicholas soon marched an army to the lower 
Danube, and seized the provinces of Moldavia and Wal- 
lachia. The Sultan declared war, and his general, Omar 
Pasha, gained several brilliant victories over the invaders, 
forcing them at length to give up the disputed provinces. 

Hist.— 24. 



282 MODERN HISTORY. 

To make it sure that the peace of Europe would not be 
disturbed again in the same way, the French and English 
fleets moved up the' Black Sea and besieged 
*^'' ' ^^" the fortress of Sevastopol in the Crimean pe- 
ninsula. For nearly a year its strong defenses resisted all 
attempts to reduce them, though the Russians were re- 
pulsed at Balaklava and signally defeated at Inkermann. 
The British soldiers suffered more from cold and hunger, 
owing to inefficient management, than from the necessary 
hardships of war; but the sick were kindly and skillfully 
cared for by Florence Nightingale and her noble band of 
volunteer nurses — ladies who had left the comfort of Eng- 
lish homes for a pilgrimage of charity to this Tartar wil- 
derness, and whose only reward was the happiness of 
relieving pain. 

664. The Czar died in March, 1855; and his son, Alex- 
ander II., a prince of more moderate views, came to the 
throne. Lord Palmerston was now at the head of the 
British ministry, and new energy appeared in the move- 
ments of the allies. A fleet, cruising in the Sea of Azof, 
destroyed immense magazines of grain, which were to have 
fed the garrison of Sevastopol; while another, penetrating 
the Baltic, shut up the Russian ships in their harbor of 
Cronstadt. At last the Redan and the Malakoff, two great 
forts which guarded the south side of Sevastopol, were 
taken by storm. The Russians sunk their fleet in the 
harbor, set fire to the town, and retired to the north forts. 

665. The Czar was now ready for peace, and in March, 
1856, a treaty was signed at Paris. The Black Sea was 
thrown open to the commerce of all nations, but no war- 
ships, either Turkish or Russian, were permitted to enter 
it. The provinces in the lower Danube were united in 
the almost independent sovereignty of Roumania, free to 
regulate all matters of religion and law for themselves, 
and to choose their own prince with the formal consent 



DESCENDANTS OF GEORGE III. 283 

of the Sultan, Christians in Turkey — who outnumbered 
the Mohammedans ahiiost six to one — were declared to 
be under the protection of the great Christian Powers. 

Point out Trafalgar. Navarino. Sevastopol. What seas were 
traversed by the allied fleets in 1854? Where is Cronstadt ? 
Koumania ? 

Read Chapter X of Green's "Short History;" Macaulay's History 
of England and Essays on Clive and Hastings; Bancroft's History of 
the United States, volumes relating to the French and Indian and 
Revolutionary wars. 



FAMILY OF GEORGE III. 

George III. 
I 

George IV. William IV. Edward, D. of Kent, Ernest Augustus, 

I died, 1820. K. of Hanover. 

Charlotte, died, 1817. | 

Victoria. 



THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 

§628. 
Philip III. — g 525. 

Anne m. Louis XIII. PiiiLii' IV. m Eliz. Mary Anne m. FERDINAND III. 
I I of France. | 

Louis XIV. m. Maria Theresa. Charles II. Marg't. Theresa m. LEOPOLD I., 

I who m. 

Louis, Dauphin. 2d Mary Anne of Neuberg. 

I I 

Louis. Philip v.— g 630. JOSEPH I. CHARLES VI. 



A^ames of Emperors are in large capitals, Kings of Spain, in small 
capitals, and Kings of France, in italics. 



CHAPTER XII. 

BRITISH EMPIRE IN THE EAST. 




Palanqain Bearers in India. 

OR a hundred years from its foundation, the English 
East India Company confined itself to trade — building a 
few forts and warehouses on lands given it by the Mogul 
emperors. After the time of Aurungzebe, who died in 
1707, the empire founded by Baber (§377) rapidly de- 
clined; and, though a Great Mogul still reigned in his 
jeweled palace at Delhi, the tv\ent\--one native princes of 
the peninsula paid him little respect and still less obedi- 
ence, but spent their time in quarreling among themselves 
and oppressing their subjects. 

667. By helping the weaker party in these disputes, the 
Company began to acquire power and wealth, which were 
often increased by buying the sovereignt)* of some bank- 
(284) 



CLIVE AND HASTINGS. 285 

nipt nizam or rajah. Conquests from the French and 
their Hindu allies, during the Seven Years' War (§645), 
laid the foundation of the British Indian Empire. In 
1756, Sura'jah Dovv'lah, the native viceroy of Bengal, cap- 
tured Calcutta, and thrust all the British residents into a 
loathsome dungeon called the Black Hole, where most of 
them died in agonies of thirst and suffocation in a single 
night. Robert Clive, formerly a poor clerk in the Com- 
pany's counting-house, now at the head of only 3,000 
men, recovered Calcutta and gained a complete victory 
over the army of Dowlah, who soon afterwards lost his 
station and his life. Clive was made Governor of Calcutta, 
and Baron of Plassy, from the scene of his victory. 

668. In 1773, the three Presidencies of Bombay, Mad- 
ras, and Bengal were united under Warren Hastings, who, 
as Governor-General, resided at Calcutta. He carried on 
a fierce conflict with Hyder Ali, the native sultan of 
Mysore in southern India, who was aided by the French 
during the war of American Independence (§652). He 
was conquered at last, but the struggle was renewed by 
his son, Tippoo Sahib, when the French Revolution had 
reawakened the hostilities in Europe between the French 
and the English. The whole kingdom of Mysore was at 
length absorbed into the British Empire. 

669. The Company's servants usually made themselves 
rich at the expense of the Hindus, perhaps quieting their 
consciences with the assurance that no amount of extor- 
tion and oppression could equal the cruelties of the native 
rulers. But this excuse did not satisfy English feeling at 
home. In 1786, Hastings was accused, by Edmund Burke, 
before the bar of the House of Lords; and, though he was 
finally acquitted on the ground that the directors of the 
company were more guilty of extortion than he, effectual 
measures were taken to protect the helpless natives of 
India from future abuse. 



286 MODERN HISTORY. 

670. In 1833, the Indian trade was thrown freely open 
to all British subjects. The Chinese government was soon 
alarmed by the enormous quantities of opium brought into 
its markets from northern India. The Chinese people 
were only too fond of the ruinous drug ; their government 
made stringent laws to prevent its introduction; and, when 
these were violated, British merchants were shut up in 
their factory at Canton until they gave up all the opium in 

their possession. The English home-govern- 
. I 40-1 42. j^gj^j. ^ygj-j|. ^.Q ^y^j. fQj. \]^Q protection of its 

subjects. Canton and several other towns were taken by 
storm, and, at length, the Chinese officials signed a treaty 
ceding Hong Kong to the British, and opening several 
ports to foreign trade. 

671. This was a great concession; for the oldest of em- 
pires had kept itself closed for ages against all the rest of 
the world. It soon afterwards made treaties with France 
and the United States. A new war was occasioned, in 
1855, by some trifling encroachment on the part of the 
Chmese. Canton was again captured by a French and 
English force, and, by the treaty of Tientsin, more cordial 
relations were established. 

672. A far more serious war soon threatened England 
with the loss of her whole Indian Empire. The native 
soldiers, called Sepoys, by means of whom this great 
peninsula was kept in subjection, numbered nearly a 
quarter of a million. Better fed, paid, and treated than 
they ever had been by their native rulers, the Sepoys 
obeyed their officers with childlike confidence. But they 
were a superstitious race, and any slight to their religion 
enraged them beyond endurance. The government held 
itself bound to respect their religion wherever it did not 
violate the universal principles of humanity — only inter- 
fering to prevent the burning of widows and the drowning 
of children as a sacrifice to the Ganges. 



THE SEPOY REBELLION. 287 

673. In 1856, new rifles came out from England for 
the Sepoy regiments; and with them greased cartridges, 
which were supposed to contain beef-tallow. To bite off 
the ends of these would be pollution to a Hindu; and, feel- 
ing their ancient faith insulted, several regiments mutinied. 
Frightful massacres of the white residents occurred at 
Delhi, Meerut, and Cawnpore ; and Lucknow, capital of 
Oude, was besieged, all the summer of 1857, by thousands 
of infuriated rebels. Gen. Havelock brought a small force 
from Persia, and, after many battles with far greater num- 
bers of Sepoys, he was able to enter Lucknow and save 
it until relief could come from home. 

674. At length Sir Colin Campbell, with a brigade of 
Highlanders, appeared, and the scene changed. Delhi, 
the rebel capital, was taken, and its king, the 'Mast of 
the Moguls," with his sons, was executed for mutiny. 
The rebellion was soon over. The government 

AD iSsS 

of India was taken from the company and 
vested in the crown. The queen — now called Empress of 
India — appoints a viceroy to represent her at Calcutta; and 
efforts have been made to extend even to the lowest orders 
of Hindus the benefits of enlightened and Christian govern- 
ment. The British rulers refrain, as before, from directly 
interfering with the native religion; but the liberal educa- 
tion provided for Hindu youth is rapidly relieving them 
from the bondage of ancient superstition. 

675. The great continent of Australia was first colo- 
nized, by English convicts, in 1788. A thousand of these 
wretched creatures, from prisons at home, arrived in 
Sydney Cove with their officers, and began to clear the 
wilderness, make roads and bridges, and prepare the way 
for better colonists. Hard work proved its advantages; 
many reformed their lives, and became useful citizens and 
even magistrates. Australian wool became celebrated in 
European markets; and thousands of free settlers were 



2 88 MODERN HISTORY. 

glad to follow where the convicts had prepared the way. 
The original colony of New South Wales was divided, 
Victoria being set oif on the south and Queensland on 
the north. 

In May, 1851, gold was discovered in Victoria, and a 
great immigration of adventurers followed. Melbourne, the 
capital of Victoria, has become a thriving city of nearly 
200,000 inhabitants, and is the seat of a university, while 
Sydney, the first settlement founded, is hardly less impor- 
tant. Australia and the neighboring island of Tasmania 
are united by submarine telegraph with London, while the 
great inland wilderness is fast being turned into homes for 
civilized men. 

676. The chiefs of New Zealand acknowledged Queen 
Victoria as their sovereign in 1840. Covering more space 
than the British Islands, New Zealand is said to be un- 
surpassed by any country in the world for richness of 
soil, healthfulness of climate, and grandeur of scenery. 
The native Maoris are a noble race, who have gladly 
accepted civilized and Christian teaching. Their skill in 
war has, however, made them dangerous enemies when- 
ever the settlers have provoked their hostilities. The Fiji 
islanders have lately put themselves under the protection 
and control of the British Queen, and have sent her the 
great war-club which, for hundreds of years, has been 
used as a scepter by their chiefs. 

Point out the Mogul capital of Hindustan. The present capital 
of British India. The three presidencies. Canton. Hong Kong. 
The provinces of Australia. Melbourne. Sydney. New Zealand. 
The Fijis. 

Read Mills' "British India;" Articles in Encyclopaedia Britannica 
on Hindustan, Australia, and New Zealand ; Macaulay's Essays on 
Clive and Warren Hastings. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 

ANY changes were silently going on 
in Europe during the eighteenth 
century. A skeptical sort of phi- 
losophy had taken possession of the 
higher classes, while the newspapers 
and debating clubs excited every- 
where a spirit of inquiry among the 
common people. The oldest and 
most sacred things were questioned; 
and, in France especially, neither 
Church nor State were in a condi- 
tion to bear questioning. The na- 
tional religion had become merely 
a splendid cloak for wickedness; 
while the government seemed to 
exist only to provide gayety and 
luxury for the court, caring nothing 
for the intolerable miseries of the 
people. 

678. Louis XVI. was a good, but 
rather dull, prince — earnestly wishing to reform the evils 
of his government, but knowing how as little as did that 
princess of his family, who, being told that thousands of 
peasants were starving to death, exclaimed "Poor things! 
If there is no bread, why do you not give them cake?" 
As a last resort, the States-general — /'. c. , the three 
"Estates," or orders of Nobles, Clergy, and Commons — 
were summoned to meet at Versailles, in May, 1789. 

Hist.- 25. ( 289 ) 




The "Sans Culottes." 



290 MODERN HISTORY. 

679. The Assembly numbered more than a thousand, 
and included some of the wisest and best men in France. 
They struck at the root of the prevailing misery by taxing 
clergy, nobles, and even the royal domains (§639), throw- 
ing the burdens of the state on those who derived most 
benefit from it. But the abuses of a thousand years could 
not be so easily cleared away, though a mania for change 
seemed suddenly to seize the Assembly. A duke and a 
viscount moved the abolition of all titles and privileges 
belonging to the nobles. Serfdom, too, was abolished; 
offices in the army and the state were thrown open to all 
ranks; and all religions were made equal before the law. 
A medal was struck, representing Louis XVI. as the 
restorer of French liberty; and a solemn Te Deiim was 
sung to celebrate the hopes of the nation. 

680. Already, however, a dangerous and desperate class 
of men had become conscious of their power — men who 
thought that liberty meant the supremacy of their passions. 
A furious mob stormed and demolished the Bastile, a 
grim old fortress, which had been the scene of many 
cruel imprisonments, but which now contained only a 
garrison of invalid soldiers. Another riotous company, 
composed largely of women, took the road to Versailles, 
where the Assembly was sitting, and where the royal 
family was residing. They forced the palace, and would 
have murdered the queen but for the intervention of 
Lafayette, who commanded the National Guard. The 
king and queen, with their children, were escorted to 
Paris by the whole mob — the heads of their murdered 
guards being borne on pikes beside them. 

681. Most of the nobles and princes of the blood now 
quitted France, leaving the king to his fate. His own 
attempt to escape with his family was in vain. They were 
arrested and brought back to a brutal imprisonment. The 
Assembly, having finished its work of making a new 



THE JACOBIN CLUB. 291 

constitution for France, was dissolved, and was succeeded 
by a Legislative Assembly, composed wholly of different 
members. The Girondists, so called from the district 
whence most of them came, were the leaders. They 
desired a constitutional monarchy, like that of England, 
or, at most, a well-ordered republic, but they had to seek 
the favor of the mob by many unwise measures. 

682. The Jacobin Club now possessed an immense power 
in France, and its journals and almanacs made it the 
terror of all Europe — advocating, as they did, the over- 
throw of all existing institutions, and a revolt against all 
authority, human and divine. Under their influence, the 
Reign of Terror began in Paris, with the September 
Massacres of 1792. A tiger-like thirst for blood seized 
the mob, who broke open asylums and prisons, and 
murdered all whom they could find — priests, women and 
children, paupers and lunatics. The king and his family 
were thrown into the gloomy prison of the Temple. Under 
its windows the guillotine was set up, and in its first victim 
the shuddering queen recognized her friend and late attend- 
ant, the beautiful Princess de Lamballe. Three thousand 
persons, suspected of favoring the king, were dragged from 
their beds by night, and hurried to the dungeon and the 
guillotine. 

683. The Mountain — so the Jacobins were called from 
the high seats they occupied — became supreme in the 
Convention which succeeded the Legislative Assembly. 
"Louis Capet" was tried by the Convention, and found 
guilty of various crimes against his people. Some would 
have imprisoned or exiled him for life, but a majority, 
and among them his kinsman, Philip Egalite — so called 
since his title of Duke of Orleans had been abolished — 
voted for immediate execution. 

684. On a frosty morning in January, 1793, Louis XVL 
was led out to die. A sea of silent faces surrounded the 



292 MODERN HISTORY. 



guillotine. The king was about to address them, but his 
voice was drowned in the roll of drums. One faithful 
friend, the Abbe Edgeworth, stood beside him to the last. 
When his head had fallen beneath the fatal knife, some 
of the crowd, more brutal than the rest, dipped pikes and 
staves in the blood and marched away, shouting ' ' Long 
live the Republic ! " 

685. The queen was guillotined the next October. Her 
little son, whom royalists called Louis XVIL, became idiotic 
through fright, hunger, and neglect, and is supposed to 
have died in his wretched dungeon. Some people believe 
a happier story: that he was secredy conveyed to a home 
among the American forests, where he grew up to be a 
humble missionary to the Indians, and learned of his high 
birth in his old age from a grandson of Philip Egalite. 

686. The Girondists were the next to fall. Their leaders 
were guillotined, and with them Madame Roland, whose 
genius and spirit had done much to inspire the party. 
The three leaders of the Jacobins were Marat, Danton, 
and Robespierre. The first was a brutal wretch, whose 
ferocity would have better suited a bloodhound than a 
man. A noble-hearted woman, Charlotte Corday by name, 
devoted her life to the rescue of her country from this 
monster. From her home in Normandy she hastened to 
Paris, gained admission to the house of Marat, and stabbed 
him to the heart; then, with perfect calmness gave herself 
up to the guillotine. 

687. But France could not be saved by such means. 
The storm of passion became wilder than ever. Christi- 
anity itself was abolished by law; and over the gates of 
cemeteries was written "Death is an eternal sleep." A 
*' goddess of Reason" was carried in pompous procession 
through the streets, and enthroned at Notre Dame. A 
more innocent sign of the general rage for destruction, 
was the abolition of old names for months and days of 



THE REIGN OF TERROR. 293 

the week, and the substitution of new and fanciful ones. 
All events were now dated from the rise of the French 
Republic, September 22, 1792. 

688. Danton at length wearied of the carnival of blood- 
shed, but his attempt to arrest it only carried him and his 
associates to the guillotine. Robespierre reigned for three 
months over the Revolutionary Tribunal, which placed the 
lives of the whole French nation at his disposal. With 
all his crimes this man was not an atheist, and he made 
the Convention pass a decree affirming the existence of 
God, and the immortality of the soul. But the butchery 
of the guillotine went on with more method and less 
interruption than ever before. At last some few found 
courage to conspire against him; he and eighty 

of his accomplices were brought to the scaffold, 
and as his head fell, a joyful shout arose from the multi- 
tude, declaring that the Reign of Terror was ended. 

689. The Convention had declared itself the ''friend of 
all peoples, but the enemy of all governments." A grand 
Coalition of nearly all the powers of Europe was now in 
arms to put down so dangerous a neighbor, and its forces 
were increased by many of the emigrated princes and 
nobles (§681). The French seaport of Toulon revolted 
against the Republic, and received 16,000 soldiers of the 
CoaHtion into its forts. The Convention declared that it 
must be retaken, or the French general commanding the 
besiegers must be guillotined. At this point, a young 
Cdrsican captain of artillery showed how, by seizing a litde 
fort called the "Needle," the English position could be 
"turned inside out," and the place taken. Tlie old general 
was amazed at his subaltern's presumption; but any thing 
was better than the guillotine; the advice was followed. 
A "tiger-spring" by the Corsican and his followers secured 
the fort; the allies abandoned Toulon; and Napoleon Bona- 
parte had won his place in history. 



294 MODERN HISTORY 



690. The Revolution had now plunged France into 
greater poverty and misery than even Louis XIV. had 
done — the rich being exiled or massacred, the poor 
without employment. Paris was starving : the mass of 
the people had only two ounces of bread and a handful 
of rice dealt out daily to each by the government. The 
royalists of the western coast proclaimed Louis XVIIL as 
their king, and asked aid of the allies; and even the 
drowning of 15,000 people, at Nantes, by order of the 
Convention, did not put an end to this counter-revolution. 

691. A new and better government was established at 
Paris in 1795, though not without a 'Svhiff of gunpowder" 
from the cannon of General Bonaparte, who had been 
called to the defense of the capital. A Directory of five 
persons was intrusted with the execution of laws, which 
were made by two Councils, resembling our Senate and 
House of Representatives. Something like order and pros- 
perity was now restored; the rule of the rabble ceased, 
and respectable people, who had fled from the Reign of 
Terror, returned. 

692. Meanwhile the French armies had been victorious 
in the Netherlands, where, indeed, they met little resistance. 
The existing governments were exchanged for the Belgian 
and Batavian Republics, which allied themselves with 
France. In 1796, Bonaparte's first campaign in Italy 
astonished the world. Perhaps it astonished himself, by 
proving what tireless energy and an indomitable will can 
achieve; for he dated from his tremendous passage of 
the bridge at Lodi, swept by the Austrian cannon, that 
wonderful career which made him master of continental 
Europe. 

693. All northern Italy was now subdued by his arms — 
including the Venetian Republic, which had stood for 1345 
years — and, invading Austria from the southward, he ad- 
vanced within a few days' march of Vienna. 



NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 295 



By the peace of Campo Formio, the Emi)eror Francis II. 
received the Venetian territory in exchange for the Austrian 
Netherlands, which were now the Belgian Republic. 

694. The Coalition being thus dissolved, England alone 
remained at war with France, and the Directory resolved 
to strike a blow at her possessions in the East. For this 
purpose Bonaparte sailed, with a great army, 

to Egypt, occupied Alexandria, and gained ' ' ^^^ " 
Cairo by a furious battle with the Mamelukes, on the plain 
of the Pyramids. The English admiral, Nelson, following 
with his fleet, destroyed almost all the French vessels in 
the Bay of Aboukir. He was rewarded by the title of 
''Baron Nelson of the Nile." In spite of his losses, Bona- 
parte pushed on into Syria, and captured Gaza and Jaffa. 
Acre, however, withstood him, and, a plague breaking out, 
he returned to Egypt, where he gained a victory over the 
Turks, and then sailed for France. 

695. Arriving at Paris, he overthrew the Directory, and 
made himself head of the republic, with the title of First 
Consul. A second Coalition of the European powers had 
now liberated Italy, but Bonaparte reconquered 

it in a swift campaign of five weeks, including 
his defeat of the Austrians at Marengo. General Moreau 
had almost as remarkable success in Germany; and his 
victory at Hohenlinden was followed by peace with Austria. 
The other powers — England the last of all, at Amiens — 
made peace with France. 

696. Bonaparte now proved himself no less able in 
government than in war. A new and much needed code 
of laws was compiled by the best lawyers, with his advice 
and assistance; and so just were his conclusions, that 
France has kept the Code Napoleon under all the changes 
of government which she has undergone since it was made. 
The Roman Church was reestablished, though all sects 
and creeds were still equal before the laws. 150,000 



296 MODERN HISTORY. 

emigrants returned, and their estates were restored to them 
as far as possible. 

697. The Peace of Amiens was soon broken by Great 
Britain; and Mr. Pitt, second son of the Great Commoner 
(§649), stirred up a Third CoaHtion, of all the chief 
powers, against France. The exiled Bourbons kept a secret 
army of assassins about Bonaparte; and both sides felt 
that his death would ensure the restoration of the old 
monarchy. This made the French people willing to ex- 
change their consulate for an empire; and, in May, 1804, 
a decree of the Senate, confirmed by the Legislative 
Corps, made Napoleon I. emperor of the French, the 
throne being declared hereditary in his family. Pope Pius 
VII. came all the way from Rome to crown the new 
Charlemagne (§311). 

698. Immense preparations were now made for an in- 
vasion of England; but, to the astonishment of the world, 
Napoleon suddenly marched his army into Germany, sur- 
prised General Mack at Ulm, and captured that general's 
entire command, with cannon and stores. He then pushed 
forward to Vienna, which he entered in triumph, while 
Francis II. made a hasty retreat. In the battle of Auster- 
litz, soon afterward, the three emperors of Russia, Austria, 
and the French were present with their armies: Napoleon 
gained one of the most thorough of all his victories, and 
the czar and kaiser threw up the game in despair. 

699. By the treaty of Presburg, Francis II. resigned his 
last foothold in Italy, and the oldest territory of his house, 
including the castle and county of Hapsburg (§365). 
Soon afterward the ''Holy Roman Empire" was dissolved, 
and the 120th of the Caesars became merely Francis I., 
hereditary emperor of Austria, and king of Hungary and 
Bohemia. 

700. Lord Nelson fought his last batde off Cape Trafal- 
gar, in Portugal, October, 1805; destroying the French and 



THE BERLIN DECREE. 297 



Spanish fleets, and thus securing to England the supremacy 
of the seas. He was struck by a ball early in the action. 
Drawing his cloak over the decorations he wore, so that 
his men might not know him, he lay three hours in mortal 
agony while the battle raged about him. At last he was 
told that a signal victory had been gained, and died, ex- 
claiming "Thank God! I have done my duty!" 

701. The King of Prussia's wxak and timid policy made 
him a mere dupe of Napoleon, who first forced him to 
accept Hanover, in order to plunge him into a war with 
England, and then took it away from him when another 
arrangement seemed more to the advantage of the con- 
queror. Frederic William HI. had lost the friendship of 
the other powers by seeking the favor of Napoleon, and 
he now had to stand almost alone against him. The 
French legions moved northward with their customary 
swiftness, and by the two victories of Jena 

and Auerstadt, which were gained on the 
same day, captured or destroyed almost the entire Prussian 
army. Several strong fortresses surrendered to the French; 
and, in less than a year from Napoleon's seizure of the 
Austrian capital, he was entering that of Prussia as a 
conqueror. The sword of Frederic the Great was sent to 
Paris as a trophy. s 

702. At this point Napoleon published his famous 
"Berlin Decree," forbidding all commerce and intercourse 
with Great Britain. By attacking the source of England's 
wealth, he" hoped to destroy the opposition to his suprem- 
acy; for he well knew that the other nations could not 
long continue at war with him, but for the never-failing 
supply of British gold. His Continental System, however, 
did more harm to the continent than to England. George 
IH. replied to the Berlin Decree by an Order in Council, 
declaring a blockade of all ports in Europe from which 
the British flag was excluded, and directing his shipmasters 



298 MODERN HISTORY. 

to seize and search all vessels which they found approach- 
ing those ports. 

703. Russian armies soon came to the relief of the 
Prussians; and, in the terrible battle of Eylau, inflicted 
such losses upon the French, that Napoleon offered terms 
of peace. These were refused, and soon afterward he 
was decidedly victorious at Friedland, while the great 
fortress of Dantzic was taken by his troops. The czar 
now proposed peace, and met Napoleon on a raft, moored 
midway in the Niemen River, which separated his dominion 
from Prussia. Alexander was filled with admiration for 
the military genius of his late opponent, and for a time 
they were good friends. The poor king of Prussia was 
deprived of half his dominions, part of which went to 
make the new kingdom of Westphalia, for Jerome Bona- 
parte. Two other brothers of Napoleon were recognized 
by the czar as kings, the one of the Two Sicilies, and the 
other of Holland. 

704. Portugal meanwhile disobeyed the Berlin Decree, 
and General Junot was ordered to put an end to her 
existence. It was done, and the Braganzas, quitting their 
European kingdom, established a vaster empire in Brazil. 
French troops, about the same time, marched into Rome, 
and overthrew the pope's temporal power. Spain was the 
next victim. Her Bourbon king, Charles IV., cared more 
for his lazy ease than for the duty he owed his people. 
He sold his kingdom to Napoleon for a castle and a 
pension; his sons, refusing to do likewise with their inher- 
itance, were imprisoned at Valenq:ay; and the crown of 
Spain was bestowed on Joseph Bonaparte. He resigned 
that of the Two Sicilies to his brother-in-law, Murat, and 
was crowned at Madrid, in January, 1809. 

705. The Spaniards felt themselves wronged and insulted 
by this bargain. They organized a new government, at 
Seville, in the name of Ferdinand VII., the eldest son 



TREATY OF SCHONBRUNISf. 299 

of Charles, and besought the help of England. Portugal 
followed their example; and Sir Arthur Wellesley, landing 
at Mondego Bay, defeated Junot so severely that he had 
to quit the country with all that remained of his army. 
The English were almost equally successful in Spain, until 
Napoleon came in person to his brother's relief. Then 
his imperious will, as usual, swept all before it, and the 
British army, under Sir John Moore, was driven from the 
peninsula. Before embarking, they defeated the French at 
Corunna, but with the loss of their brave leader. 

706. The Austrian emperor, always bitterly enraged at 
the treaty of Presburg (^699), thought his time for re- 
venge had come while his great enemy was far away in 
Spain. Hastily collecting a force twice as numerous as 
the French, he pushed into Bavaria. But his movements 
were watched. Almost as swiftly as a thunderbolt Napo- 
leon traversed France, entered Germany, and by five 
battles, fought in five successive days, cleared his way to 
Vienna, which surrendered to him. May 12, 1809. The 
treaty of Schonbrunn, which followed, was more humili- 
ating to Austria than even that of Presburg had been. 
The next year Francis I. accepted his conqueror as a 
son-in-law. Napoleon, having dissolved his marriage with 
Josephine, espoused the archduchess Maria Louisa. In 
181 1, a son was born to him, who received the title of 
King of Rome. 

707. King Louis of Holland, having offended his brother 
by opposing the restrictions on trade which were ruining 
his people (§702), retired into Austria, and his kingdom 
was annexed to France. The czar was equally injured 
by the ''Continental System," and by many other acts of 
Napoleon. He now joined with Sweden — whose regent 
and crown-prince was Bernadotte, a former general of 
Napoleon — in resisting that oppressive system; and a new 
war broke out, on a grander scale than even those that 



300 MODERN HISTORY. 

had preceded it. Austria and Prussia were now allies of 
France; Great Britain and Sweden, of Russia. Napoleon, 
while mustering his forces, summoned a throng of princes 
to meet him at Dresden, and indulged his pride by such 
a display of imperial grandeur as Europe had never seen 
before. 

708. Then, with half a million of men, splendidly equip- 
ped, he marched into Russia. But the forces of nature 
seemed all arrayed against him. A terrible hurricane, 
followed by floods and excessive cold, swept away multi- 
tudes of horses and men. Space itself, which his swift, 
decisive movements had hitherto overcome, now mastered 
him. The Russians retreated, destroying all their harvests, 
and burning towns through which the French must pass; 
and when he arrived at Moscow, the ancient capital, it, 
too, was silent and deserted. The French took possession ; 
but in the night, fires, kindled by long trains, burst forth 
in every part of the city. 

709. Conquered by frost and flame. Napoleon at length 
ordered a retreat. The track of his grand army was 
strewn with corpses like one long battle-field. In a single 
night, thousands of men and all the remaining horses were 
frozen to death. Troops of Cossacks harassed the march; 
and, arriving at the River Beresina, the French had to 

cross a bridge under furious fire from the 

Nov., 1812. ^ . ^^. 1 ,- I 1 

Russian cannon. Nme-tenths of the grand 
army were left dead upon Russian plains, and the rest 
were frightfully maimed and shattered. 

710. The enemies and unwilling allies of Napoleon took 
courage from his misfortunes; and the whole continent was 
engaged in the war of 18 13. Napoleon's extraordinary 
genius was never more manifest than in this season of 
tremendous difficulties. Wherever he commanded in per- 
son — at Lutzen, Bautzen, and Dresden — great victories were 
won; but his generals were almost every-where defeated. 



THE HUNDRED DAYS. 301 



At length, in a three days' battle at Leipsic, the allies were 
victorious, and Napoleon was compelled to retreat. 

711. A crowd of deposed princes — among them Pope 
Pius VII. — now returned to their deserted thrones. Early 
in 1 8 14, the allies were ready to move from the north, east, 
and south upon Paris. Still Napoleon's movements were 
as firm and decisive as ever. Though immensely out- 
numbered by his enemies, he still acted upon his old 
principle of so massing his troops as to be always the 
strongest at the point of attack. In this way he drove 
back Blucher, the Prussian general, defeated the Aus- 
trians, and was even carrying the war into Germany, 
when he heard that the allies were marching directly 
upon Paris. 

712. After a battle in the suburbs, the czar and the 
king of Prussia entered that city, followed by their vic- 
torious armies. Wellington was on his march from Spain, 
having completed the Peninsular War by the restoration 
of Ferdinand VII. A congress of the allies disposed of 
France and her chosen ruler at their will. Napoleon 
received the little island of Elba, and a pension, in ex- 
change for his empire. France was deprived of all her 
conquests since 1792, and was forced to accept Louis 
XVIII., a brother of the guillotined monarch (§684), as 
her king. 

713. The next spring, Napoleon, quitting Elba, landed 
almost alone in the south of France. He was soon joined 
by many devoted adherents. The king's brother, sent 
with an army to oppose him, had to make an unprincely 
retreat; for, at sight of the familiar and idolized figure in 
the gray surtout, nearly his Avhole force broke into shouts 
of '-^Vive r Emperatr!'' and passed over to Napoleon's side. 
The Bourbons fled from Paris, and the emperor reigned 
a hundred days with greater energy than ever. Every 
nerve was strained to provide new armies for the defense 



302 MODERN HISTORY. 

of the restored empire. The multitude of mere boys who 
thronged the recruiting offices, at once proved the devo- 
tion of the people, and showed how the strength of France 
had been exhausted by twenty years of almost perpetual 
war. The graves of their fathers were scattered the length 
of Europe, from Malaga to Moscow. The allies also 
mustered their forces, and in the great battle of Waterloo, 
Wellington, the British, and Blucher, the Prussian com- 
mander, gained a victory which overthrew the Empire of 
the French. Napoleon tried to secure the crown to his 
son, who was now four years old; but the Senate insisted 
upon his abdicating without conditions. The allies refused 
to make any treaty with France, until the emperor should 
be placed in their keeping. He then attempted to make 
his escape to America, but the coast was too well guarded 
by British cruisers, and he was forced to surrender himself 
to one of their officers. He was not permitted to touch 
the soil of England, but was conveyed, as a prisoner, to 
the rocky islet of St. Helena, where he died, less than six 
years later. May 5th, 1821. 

Trace, on Map 13, the campaigns of Napoleon. 

Read Carlyle's French Revolution, and Dyer's Modern Europe. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

ABSOLUTISTS AND LIBERALS IN EUROPE. 




HE wars of the French Revolution were 
now ended, and a grand congress of sovereigns, or their 
representatives, met at Vienna, to consult to- 
gether for the restoration of order. The ' ' bal- 
ance of power" which they then arranged, lasted more 
than forty years. 

715. Prussia received back her lost territories and more; 
so that she now became one of the Five Great Powers. 
Austria was consoled for the loss of the Netherlands by 
all of northern Italy, except the kingdom of Sardinia. 
France, Spain, and Naples were again subjected to the 
Bourbons; and humiliated France had to maintain a 
foreign army of 150,000 men, who were quartered upon 
her frontier, to keep her from again disturbing the general 
peace. 

716. Thirty-nine German sovereigns and free cities 
formed a new confederation, with its capital at Frankfort- 

(303) 



304 MODERN HISTORY 



on-the-Main. Holland and Belgium were united in the 
kingdom of the Netherlands, with the Prince of Orange 
for their king. The Five Great Powers — Great Britain, 
France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia — held themselves 
responsible for maintaining the balance of power, by in- 
terfering in behalf of any state which might be injured 
and unable to defend itself. 

717. The czar proposed to the other sovereigns a 
Holy Alliance, binding them to "remain united in true 
brotherly love ; to govern their subjects as parents, and to 
maintain religion, peace, and justice." This promised 
well, but it was soon found that the allied sovereigns 
meant to be very despotic "parents," by no means allow- 
ing their children to act or think for themselves. Hence 
arose a conflict between Absolutism and Liberalism, which 
led at last to the revolutions of 1848. 

718. Spain, trying to throw off the stupid tyranny of 
Ferdinand VH. — who had restored the Inquisition and 
all the abuses of his ancestors — was subdued by a French 
army of 100,000 men, under the influence of the Alliance. 
The liberal constitution was overthrown, and absolute des- 
potism restored. In Italy multitudes of Liberals joined 
themselves in secret societies to resist the Hapsburgs in 
the north and the Bourbons in the south (§634). 

719. That of the Carbonari (charcoal-men) numbered 
half a million. In 1820, they made an open attack upon 
the government at Naples in such force that the king 
granted all they asked — the Spanish "Constitution of 
1812" and a Liberal ministry. The Holy Alliance again 
interfered, and an Austrian army restored despotism in 
Naples. The rule of the Hapsburgs, in northern Italy, 
was, if possible, more odious than that of the Bourbons. 
Persons who were only suspected of sympathy with the 
Carbonari, suddenly disappeared, and spent the rest of 
their lives in solitary dungeons. 



THE GREEK REVOLUTION. 305 

720. Liberalism was kept alive, in Germany, by the 
youth in the Universities, whose high spirits doubtless 
taxed the patience of the paternal governments. Some 
outbreak of eloquence, on the third centennial of the 
Reformation, brought a reprimand from the Alliance. A 
half crazy student of Jena thereupon murdered Kotzebue, 
the Russian consul; and the sovereigns, fancying some 
wide-spread conspiracy, insisted upon taking away the 
freedom of the Universities. 

721. The revolt of the Greeks against the cruel oppres- 
sions of the Turks was met in the same spirit; but that 
brave people persevered until their independence was won. 
Prince Ypsilanti, in 1821, publicly announced that the 
servitude of four hundred years was ended, and that 
Greece was determined to be free. Hundreds of Greek 
students hastened to enroll themselves in a Sacred Band, 
bearing upon their shields the Spartan motto, ''Either 
this or on this." The Turks tried to crush the movement 
by atrocious massacres; the Sacred Band was cut to pieces, 
and the beautiful isle of Scio was laid waste; forty thou- 
sand of its people perished, while the strongest and most 
beautiful youth were dragged away to the Turkish slave- 
markets. 

722. The next year Marco Bozzaris and his Suliote band 
fell upon a Turkish camp by night and gained a complete 
victory, with the loss of his own life. Though governments 
might be indifferent or hostile, the people all over Europe 
were thrilled with sympathy for the Greeks; money, food 
and clothing were supplied, and many volunteers sought the 
honor of serving in their ranks (§656). At last the govern- 
ments of Great Britain, France and Russia were moved to 
interfere, and their combined fleets defeated the Turks in 
the Bay of Navarino. 

723. The soul of the Holy Alliance departed when Alex- 
ander I. died, in 1825. His brother Nicholas, who succeeded 

Hist. — 26. 



3o6 MODERN HISTORY. 

him, coveted the Turkish possessions on the Black Sea, and 
his movements in that direction forced the sultan to ac- 
knowledge the independence of the Greeks, Prince Otho 
of Bavaria was chosen to be their king, under the influence 
of the allied powers. 

724. In 1830 the Liberal spirit became powerful enough 
to accomplish several peaceful revolutions. Charles X., who 
had succeeded his brother Louis XVIIL as king of France, 
offended the people by limiting the freedom of the press 
and of voting. He was forced to resign his crown and 
take refuge in Great Britain. The duke of Orleans, son of 
Egalite, was called to the throne as ''King of the French," 
with a liberal constitution, much like that of England. 

725. Belgium at the same time separated from Holland 

and chose Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to be its king. 

The Poles made a brave but vain effort to throw off the 

harsh yoke of the Russians, which was made harder to them 

by the tyrannical temper of the viceroy, the grand-duke 

Constantine, brother of the czar. Their very nationality 

was now blotted out; 80,000 patriots were sent 
A. D. 1S32. . ., . , ^ 

m one year to toil m the frozen deserts of 

Siberia; and children were even separated from their 

parents to be trained in military colonies. 

726. Under the reign of Louis Philippe, France enjoyed 
some years of peace and prosperity. Still, the "citizen- 
king " found it impossible to please all parties. Strict mon- 
archists thought that no one could rightfully reign over 
France excepting Henry V., the grandson of Charles X. ; 
Bonapartists longed for the military glories of the Empire; 
and a growing multitude of Liberals desired a French Re- 
public. A severe loss was felt in the death of the duke 
of Orleans, the heir to the crown, whom all men loved and 
trusted. 

727. The king's interference in the Spanish marriage 
hastened his fall. Ferdinand VH. had died in 1833, 



REVOLUTION OF 1848. 307 

leaving only two little daughters, the oldest of whom was 
three years old. His brother, Don Carlos, claimed the 
crown under the "Salic Law" (§405), but Louis Philippe 
and a strong party in Spain upheld the little queen, who 
afterward became the too noted Isabella IL The French 
king wished to increase his own power by choosing hus- 
bands for the queen and her sister. To the former he 
allotted the half-idiotic Francis of Assis, but for her sister, 
whom he thought likelier to live and reign, he destined 
his own son, the duke of Montpensier. The marriages 
both took place, but the Orleans Dynasty was less benefited 
by them than had been hoped. 

728. The Liberals were now powerful in France; and 
at one of their great Reform Banquets in the open air, the 
usual toast to the king was omitted, while the "sovereignty 
of the people" was received with great applause. The 
government tried to suppress the next meeting of this 
kind, at which 100,000 people were expected to be present. 
The guns of the forts were pointed inward 

, . ^ . ,-.• J Feb., 1848. 

upon the city, and 60,000 soldiers were ready 
to fire upon the mob. This aroused the fury of the lowest 
class of the people, who, swarming together from their 
dens and cellars, barricaded the streets and raised the cry, 
"Long live the Republic!" 

729. The king and his sons fled, but the widowed 
duchess of Orleans came with her little son into the revo- 
lutionary assembly, — calm and undaunted, though weapons 
were aimed at her heart. She reminded the deputies of 
her husband's exalted character, and promised that she 
would teach his son to be like him, true to the people. 
But a voice from the tribune cried, "Too late!" and a 
republic was proclaimed. 

730. National workshops were now opened, where all 
who applied found employment and wages. But this plan, 
though it seemed benevolent, proved very dangerous; 



3o8 MODERN HISTORY 



100,000 workmen were soon massed together in the public 
shops, and any attempt to control them aroused their fury. 
The attempt to abate this peril by dismissing a great num- 
ber of men led to a terrible four days' batde in the streets 
of Paris. General Cavaignac by his cool, wise and prompt 
measures restored order. A new constitution was now 
adopted, and Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the 
emperor, became president of the French Republic. 

731. The Liberals were every-where in arms, especially 
in Germany, Hungary and Italy, and the year 1848 was 
marked by revolutions all over Europe. In a riot at 
Vienna, the war-minister La Tour was beaten to death by 
the mob, and the Emperor Ferdinand fled, leaving his 
capital in their hands. He soon afterward resigned in 
favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph I. 

732. The Hungarians revolted against the long-hated 
dominion of the Hapsburgs, and set up a republic with 
Louis Kossuth at its head. Many Poles, having no country 
of their own, became " soldiers of liberty" and rendered 
good service to the Hungarians, while the Czar Nicholas 
sent armies to the aid of his Austrian ally. The brave 
Hungarians were unable to hold out long against the com- 
bined forces of despotism. In May, 1849, ^^^ brutal field- 
marshal Haynau, who had crushed the revolution in northern 
Italy, was placed at the head of the Austrian armies, and 
by a great victory at Temesvar, overthrew the republic. 
Kossuth resigned, and Gorgei was made dictator ; but 
within two days Gorgei surrendered his whole army with 
its cannon and stores to the Russians. Kossuth and a 
few companions escaped into Turkey, where they were 
kindly received by the Sultan, the hereditary foe of the 
Czar; a few years later he visited America, where his 
eloquent speeches awakened great sympathy for his op- 
pressed countrymen. 

733. The Italian insurgents were scarcely more successful 



JOSEPH GARIBALDI. 309 

in their stroke for liberty; but one important step was 
gained in the acknowledged leadership of the House of 
Savoy, which, ten years later, secured the unity and inde- 
pendence of Italy. Pope Pius IX. had begun his reign in 
1846 with liberal measures, which excited great hopes; but 
when the people demanded war against Austria in aid of 
the Lombard insurgents, he refused. His minister. Count 
Rossi, was murdered, and the pope's palace was assaulted, 
but he himself escaped to Gaeta. 

734. Among the noted actors in the Italian revolution 
was Joseph Garibaldi, a defender of freedom, and a foe 
to despotism in every form. Garibaldi entered Rome with 
a band of volunteers; and an Assembly was 

called, which deposed the pope and proclaimed « • ^ 49- 

a republic with Mazzini at its head. The French president 
sent an army to the aid of Pope Pius; it was defeated by 
Garibaldi before the walls of Rome ; but after more troops 
arrived from France, the city was taken and the republic 
was overthrown, July 3, 1849. 

735. In Germany a national parliament proposed to re- 
vive the Empire and to place the king of Prussia at its 
head. But Frederic William IV. refused the crown, and 
for some years the multitude of German states were less 
united than ever. Most of the petty sovereigns gave free 
constitutions to their people; /'. e., they conceded freedom 
of speech and of the press, and shared the law-making 
power with representatives chosen by ballot. 

Point out the dominions of the Hapsburgs in Hungary, Germany, 
and Italy. Of the Bourbons in Spain and Italy. See ^740. 

Note. — The kingdom of Naples had been conferred upon Charles 
VI. of Austria, by the treaty of Rastadt, in 1814 (see §630), but in 
1734 it was conquered by the Spanish Bourbons, and i-eiinited with 
Sicily under a younger branch of that family. ^634. 

Read Dyer's modern Europe. 



CHAPTER XV. 



THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE. 




A Prussian Soldier. 



HE French Republic, like that of 
half a century before, was soon 
exchanged for an imperial govern- 
ment. Having first placed at the 
head of the army men who were 
committed to his plans, President 
Bonaparte caused the principal 
generals and statesmen of France 
to be suddenly seized and impris- 
oned during the night following 
December i, 1851. An army was 
already massed in Paris, the news- 
paper offices were occupied by 
soldiers, and the morning editions 
suppressed, while the government 
printers were setting up placards 
which appeared before daylight on 
all the walls. 



737. These declared the capital in a state of siege, the 
National Assembly dissolved, and called for a new election 
by universal suffrage. The telegraph told the remotest 
corners of France that the revolution was already accom- 
plished, and that Bonaparte was responsible head of the 
government for ten years. The deputies, protesting, were 
carted away to prison; and the Supreme Court was broken 
up by an armed force. The coup d'etat seemed to have 
succeeded without bloodshed, for the prosperous classes 
{310) 



UNIFICATION OF ITAIY. 311 

liked any thing better than anarchy, or the reign of the 
mob; and all who remembered the First Empire felt sure 
of a strong and efficient government under a Bonaparte. 

738. But, on December 4, the army in the streets began 
to fire, apparently without orders, upon a throng of peace- 
able citizens; multitudes more were massacred in prison, 
and 26,500 were transported to Cayenne on the African 
coast. Whatever resistance there might have been, was 
now crushed: the people conferred the whole executive 
power on Louis Napoleon Bonaparte for ten years ; and 
the next autumn, by a similar vote, he became "Napoleon 
III,* by the grace of God and the will of the people. 
Emperor of the French." 

739. The war in the Crimea, in which France and 
England were the allies of the Turks against Russia, has 
been described (§§662-665). It was brought about 
mainly by Napoleon, who wished to please his army and 
nation by a taste of military glory, such as they associ- 
ated with his uncle's name. The war was ended by the 
treaty of Paris, 1856; and, soon afterward, France became 
the ally of Victor Emanuel, king of Sardinia, in a war 
against Austria. 

740. Brave men from all the states of Italy sought the 
camp of Victor Emanuel, and the contest which followed 
is called the War of Italian Nationality. The Austrian 
rulers of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma fled from their mis- 
governed dominions, and their armies joined the allies, who 
gained decisive victories at Montebello, Palestro, 

and Magenta. To the latter. General McMahon • ^ 59- 

contributed by coming up with reserves at the right moment, 
and he was rewarded with the rank of Marshal of France 
and Duke of Magenta. 



■•••His cousin, the King of Rome (^706), had died near Vienna, 
m 1852. 



312 MODERN HISTORY. 

741. A few days later Napoleon and Victor Emanuel 
entered Milan in triumph. The last great battle of the war 
was fought at Solferino, June 24 ; and, by the treaty of Villa- 
franca, Francis Joseph surrendered all his claims to Lom- 
bardy and the protection of the three duchies. The next 
year Sicily was conquered by Garibaldi and his volunteers, 
and the Bourbon king, Francis II. , fled from Naples. The 
Two Sicilies united of their own accord with the Kingdom 
of Italy, which now embraced the whole peninsula excepting 
the territories of Rome and Venice. French troops still oc- 
cupied Rome and protected the sovereignty of the poj^e. 

742. Napoleon III. was now at the height of his power, 
and his history is inseparable from that of all Europe. In 
1 86 1 he even interfered in American affairs, by assuming 
a protectorate of the ''Latin Race" on that continent. 
Mexico was in a state of revolution, and a French army, 
occupying its capital, secured a vote for an hereditary em- 
pire in place of the republic. The archduke Maximilian, 
brother of Francis Joseph, was chosen emperor under 
French influence; and entered the City of Mexico with the 
Empress Carlotta in June, 1864. President Juarez removed 
the seat of his government to Monterey, and war between 
the empire and the republic went on for three years with 
varying fortunes. In 1867, the French troops having been 
withdrawn, Maximilian was taken prisoner and w^as shot at 
Queretaro. The republic was reestablished. 

743. Napoleon had now met a powerful opponent to his 
management of European affairs. This was Count von 
Bismarck, the Prussian chancellor, who had resolved to see 
his sovereign at the head of united Germany. Austria and 
Prussia had lately engaged together in the Schleswig-Holstein 
war, which ended in the separation of those duchies from 
Denmark; but, in the division of the spoils, a new war 
arose — a short but very decisive contest, which revolution- 
ized Germany. 



THE SEVEN WEEKS' WAR. 313 

744. The Prussian armies had been thoroughly reor- 
ganized; the infantry had the needle-gun, which, for swift- 
ness and accuracy in firing, had never been surpassed. The 
king of Italy made a close alliance with Prussia, and attacked 
the Austrians at Custozza with less good fortune 

than his northern friends. The main action of 
the ''Seven Weeks' War" was the batde of Sadowa, where 
the needle-gun won the day for the Prussians, while the 
white-coated Austrian cavalry, — hitherto considered the best 
and bravest in Europe, — was put to flight by the Uhlans. 

745. By the treaty of Prague, Austria withdrew at once 
from Germany and Italy, ceding Venetia to Victor Eman- 
uel, and recognizing Prussia as the head of the North 
German Confederation, which succeeded to the arrangement 
of 1815 (§716). Thus shorn of his German and Italian 
dominions, Francis Joseph took the wise course of reforming 
his own hereditary states. A representative parliament was 
convened at Vienna, which in a single session swept away 
abuses of a thousand years, making all classes, religions, and 
races equal before the laws. The "Austro-Hungarian Mon- 
archy" is now as liberal as any in Europe. 

746. The swift and surprising changes made by the 
Seven Weeks' War were little relished by Napoleon III., 
who had thought that his aid would be needed by Prussia. 
Several little diplomatic moves, — made in order to regain 
his lost importance, — were quietly checkmated by Bismarck, 
but at length a revolution in Spain afforded the desired 
cause of war. 

747. Isabella II. had been compelled to quit her kingdom 
and take refuge in France, while the reign of the Spanish 
Bourbons was declared to be ended. Many candidates 
sought the vacant throne, — among them a new Don Carlos, 
grandson of the queen's uncle (§ 727). But Carlos Avas the 
representative of absolutism and priestcraft, and the Span- 
iards had no mind to crown another Philip II. They invited 

Hist. — 27. 



314 MODERN HISTORY. 



Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a very distant relative of 
the king of Prussia, to be their sovereign. Napoleon chose 
to consider this as a Prussian aggression, though King 
William I. declared that he had nothing to do with the 
matter, and could not prevent Leopold's taking the crown 
if he chose it. Leopold himself refused to be a candidate, 
as soon as he heard of the excitement at Paris. 

748. All was in vain. The French armies began their 
march to the Rhine on the day of Leopold's resignation. 
On July 19th, Napoleon declared war against Prussia, and, 
leaving the Empress Eugenie as regent during his absence, 
went to the frontier with his son. It was soon found that 
the French army was unfit for service. No regiment was 
full, and no supplies of food were provided. Thousands of 
men went starving into battle, and it is no wonder that the 
gallant army which left Paris so gayly for the *' march to 
Berlin" found itself unable even to defend France. 

749. The Prussians were drilled, fed and equipped to the 
highest degree of efficiency, and, when joined by the South- 
German forces, had more than twice the numbers of the 
French. Napoleon gained a slight advantage at Saar- 
briicken, but it was almost the last of the French victories. 
Three German armies crossed the frontier into France. The 
Crown Prince threatened Paris ; while his cousin Frederic 
Charles three times severely defeated Bazaine, who was now 
at the head of the main French army, and finally shut him 
up in Metz with his whole command. 

750. McMahon was meanwhile mustering a new force 
for the relief of Bazaine; but the Crown Prince contrived 
to crowd him back upon Sedan, where, after a tremendous 
battle, the fortress itself and the whole French army, includ- 
ing cannon, horses and 108,000 men, were surrendered to 
the Germans. The French emperor, who was with Mc- 
Mahon, surrendered himself, September 2d, 1870, and 
remained for a time a prisoner at Wilhelmshohe, an old 



THE SIEGE OF PARIS. 315 

palace of his uncle, King Jerome. He died at Chiselhurst, 
in England, the 9th of January, 1873. 

751. Paris was filled with terror; the Crown Prince and 
his victorious army were daily expected at her gates. The 
Legislative Assembly declared that the empire had ceased 
to exist. The Empress-Regent and her son took refuge in 
England, and a provisional republic was proclaimed with 
General Trochu at its head. A large party in France now 
desired peace. The king of Prussia had constantly declared 
that he had no quarrel with the French people, but only 
with their emperor who had insulted him ; but he now de- 
manded Alsace and Lorraine (§617), while the republic, 
though willing to pay a large amount of money, refused to 
cede an "inch of its land or a stone of its fortresses." For 
this cause the war went on. 

752. On September 18, the Crown Prince took up his 
quarters at Versailles and his armies besieged Paris. Gam- 
betta, escaping in a balloon, joined some other members of 
the provisional government at Tours, which was for a time 
the French capital. Strasburg was taken by the Germans, 
September 28, after a fierce cannonade, which shattered her 
beautiful cathedral tower; and a month later Bazaine sur- 
rendered Metz, with his army of 180,000 men and officers 
and an immense number of cannon. 

753. Germany gained its long-desired unity, while France 
was on the verge of ruin. All the German states joined in 
requesting the king of Prussia to assume the imperial crown. 
This time (§735) the offer was accepted, and the Emperor 
William L was crowned in the great hall at 
Versailles. Paris at last was starved into sub- 
mission. On the 28th of January, 1871, the sixteen forts 
which formed her outer circle of defense were surrendered. 
Three weeks' truce was allowed so that the French people 
might vote for a new government. A republic was pro- 
claimed, and Thiers was chosen as its president. The gov- 



3i6 MODERN HISTORY 



ernment made peace with Germany, ceding Alsace and 
Lorraine and engaging to pay one thousand miUions of 
dollars as war indemnity to the conqueror. 

754. A still greater calamity now befell Paris. That 
fierce, ignorant and lawless rabble, which had made the 
worst element in all previous revolutions, gained control of 
the city, while the rightful government was forced to retire 
to Versailles. Many battles were fought for the forts south 
of Paris. Strong parties in other great cities sympathized 
with the Commune, for it was suspected that Thiers' govern- 
ment favored a restoration of monarchy, while the towns 
were uniformly republican. 

755. Victory at last remained with the Versailles forces; 
and the Communists, becoming desperate, fired Paris with 
trains of petroleum, destroying the Tuileries, the Hotel de 
Ville and other splendid buildings. The archbishop of Paris 
and many others were wantonly murdered, and the desola- 
tion wrought by the Commune far exceeded that of the 
German siege. 

756. The French troops having meanwhile been with- 
drawn from Rome, that city was occupied by Victor Eman- 
uel, and the people of the States of the Church signified, 

by an almost unanimous vote, their desire to be 
*^ ■' ^ ^°" united with the Kingdom of Italy. Pope Pius 
IX. was recognized in all his dignities as head of the 
Roman Church; and princely revenues were secured to 
him, with undisturbed possession of the Leonine City 
(§305); but his temporal sovereignty ceased to exist. 

In 1873, Thiers having resigned. Marshal McMahon was 
chosen to be president, for seven years, of the French re- 
public. The unconquerable spirit of the people has been 
proved by the complete payment of the war-debt and the 
restoration of the finances to a healthy and prosperous state. 

757. Spain, after a short-lived republic, and a two years' 
attempt at constitutional monarchy under Amadeo, son of 



THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 317 

the king of Italy, has already restored her Bourbon line in 
the person of Alfonso XII., son of the ex-queen Isabella. 
The Carlist opposition has been put down, and its leader 
has quitted Spain. By marrying a daughter of the duke of 
Montpensier (§727) Alfonso has fulfilled a part, at least, of 
the scheme of Louis Philippe. What is of more consequence 
is, that he has guaranteed freedom of worship and some 
provision for popular instruction, so that it may be hoped 
that the great peninsula, so richly endowed by nature, will 
some time recover from the effects of ages of misrule. 

758. It is long since the Turks, as conquerors (§§560, 
563), threatened the peace of Europe; but the vast interests 
of England and Russia, in the East, render them jealous 
of any changes in the Turkish territories. Meanw^hile the 
Christian subjects of the Sultan have had to suffer intoler- 
able oppressions. In June, 1875, ^^ ^^^tle province of 
Herzegovina revolted, with the hearty sympathy of her 
neighbors. The next May, the French and German consuls 
at Salonica were murdered by a Turkish mob. Russia, 
Austria, and Germany then united in what is called the 
*' Berlin Memorandum," requiring Turkey to reform her 
government, and give security of life and property to 
Mussulmans and Christians alike. England refused to join 
in the demand; and within a month Bulgaria was the 
scene of horrid brutalities by the Turks. All Europe was 
enflamed with indignation; Servia and Montenegro declared 
war, with secret aid from Russia; the Sultan, Abd-el-Aziz, 
was deposed and probably murdered by his ministers; and 
in December, 1876, a conference of six great powers met 
at Constantinople. The Turkish government refusing to 
accede to their demands, the Czar declared war, and 
marched his armies to the Danube and into Armenia. 

Trace on Map 13, the campaign of Napoleon III. in Italy. Point 
out Sadowa (in Bohemia), Sedan, Metz, Strasburg. Schleswig, Hol- 
stein, Alsace, Lorraine. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



AMERICAN AFFAIRS. 




Crossing the Plains. 

T the close of the Revolution (§§211-213), 
United States were poor even to ruin, and hardly knew 
what to do with the freedom they had gained. Each state 
stood jealously for its own independence of all the rest; 
and the people who had fought against British taxation, 
were not always willing to pay heavier taxes at the demand 
of Congress. After four years of danger, the National 
Convention, at Philadelphia, prepared a federal constitu- 
tion which left each state sovereign in its own affairs, but 
intrusted the matters in which all were equally interested — 
postal service, coinage, and dealings with foreign nations — 
to a general government. 

760. This constitution was agreed to by the several 
states, and, in 1789, George Washington was unanimously 
chosen to be the first president of the Union. His noble 
and steadfast character did much to establish order, con- 
fidence, and peace. After eight years' service in this 
highest office, Washington declined to be reelected, and 
was succeeded by John Adams, one of the signers of 
(318) 



THE WAR OF 1812. 319 

the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson, the 
brilHant author of that document, was the next president. 
Under his administration, the whole Mississippi Valley was 
purchased from France. 

761. The claim of the British to search American vessels 
for their runaway sailors, forced the United States into a 
war with the mother-country in 181 2. Beginning, almost 
without a navy, to contend with the greatest maritime 
power on the globe, the president gave commissions to a 
swarm of privateers, which preyed upon British commerce, 
and captured, in the course of the war, more than 1,500 
vessels. Fleets were, however, built both on the ocean 
and the lakes, which gained many victories in regular 
battle. 

762. Three invasions of Canada resulted in loss and 
failure to the Americans, and the whole territory of Michi- 
gan was at one time surrendered to the British ; but the 
brilliant victory of Commodore Perry, in Lake Erie, was 
followed by General Harrison's triumphant campaign in 
Canada, and the recovery of the lost ground. The Indians 
of the northwest, who were allies of the British, were sub- 
dued by the death of their chief, Tecumseh, and their 
confederacy was broken up. 

763. The next year, the Americans gained decisive vic- 
tories at Chippewa, at Lundy's Lane near Niagara Falls, 
and at Plattsburgh, where an army of Wellington's veterans 
was defeated on land at the same time that Commodore 
McDonough was capturing the British fleet on the waters 
of Lake Champlain. The coasts of Virginia and Carolina 
were ravaged by a British force, which, landing in the 
Chesapeake, burned Washington with all its public build- 
ings; but a great victory of General Jackson, on the lower 
Mississippi, defeated a similar attempt upon New Orleans. 
News soon afterward arrived that peace had been con- 
cluded at Ghent. 



320 MODERN HISTORY. 

764. Our victorious navy won fresh laurels by Commodore 
Decatur's expedition against the pirates of the Barbary 
coast. They were compelled to liberate a multitude of 
American captives, to pay for property which they had 
destroyed, and to enter into a treaty which bound them 
to respect the flag of the United States in future. 

765. The history of these States, from the treaty of 
Ghent to the Mexican War, is hinted at in the philosopher's 
saying: ''Happy is the people that has no annals." Every 
year more of the western prairies were converted into 
harvest-fields; and every year thousands of the European 
poor found homes in the New World, where their industry 
brought to light more of the untold wealth of the soil and 
the mines. Navigation by steam, first successfully accom- 
plished by Fulton, on the Hudson River, did much to 
bring the interior of the continent into communication 
with the coast and with Europe. 

766. Taking courage from the success of the United 
States, the Spanish colonies in North and South America 
resolved to be free from the oppressive rule of Ferdinand 
VH. (§718). The moment was favorable when Spain 
was absorbed in the wars with Napoleon; and, in 1810, 
Mexico in the north, Chili and the great viceroyalty of 
Buenos Ayres on the south, declared themselves inde- 
pendent. The latter was divided into the republics of La 
Plata, Uruguay, Paraguay, and, ultimately, Bolivia. The 
five colonies of Central America, and the countries on the 
Caribbean sea were not long in following the example. 

767. The great hero of the revolution was Simon Bolivar, 
a native of Caraccas. While a youth, studying in Europe, 
he learned all that was best in the principles of the French 
Revolution; and fired still more by the example of Wash- 
ington and Franklin, he vowed that he would become the 
liberator of his country. The three provinces of Quito, 
New Granada, and Venezuela united themselves in the 



THE MEXICAN WAR. 321 



Republic of Colombia, with Bolivar as their president, in 
1 819; and the Spanish Royalists were finally defeated at 
Carabobo, in 182 1. 

768. Peru was the last of the South American countries 
to throw off the Spanish yoke; and Bolivar, with a Co- 
lombian army, marched to its assistance in 1822. The 
Spaniards were expelled, and Great Britain and the United 
States acknowledged the independence of Peru. Its more 
mountainous southern portion, formerly governed by the 
viceroy of Buenos Ayres, was formed into a separate re- 
public, named Bolivia, in honor of the "Liberator," who 
became its president. 

769. Bolivar desired to unite all South America in a 
great Federal Republic, like the United States of the 
northern part of the continent; but mutual jealousies 
made this impossible. His last years were embittered by 
the ingratitude of his countrymen, to whose service he 
had devoted his whole life and fortune. 

770. Mexico, after twelve years of revolution, accepted 
Iturbide, a military officer, as its emperor in 1822. But 
Iturbide had reigned less than a year when he found that 
both army and people were hopelessly disaffected toward 
his government. He consented to be exiled with an ample 
pension; but returning the next year he was shot as a 
traitor. A federal republic was then established. 

771. The great territory of Texas was included in 
Mexico; but, upon the overthrow of the federal constitu- 
tion by Santa Anna, in 1833, Texas seceded, and sought 
admission into the United States. This was refused for 
several years; but, in 1844, President Polk was elected by 
a party favoring annexation, and Texas was duly admitted, 
the next year, by act of Congress. 

772. War with Mexico followed. General Taylor, with 
a small United States army, invaded the northern prov- 
inces, which he conquered by his remarkable victories at 



32 2 MODERN HISTORY. 

Monterey and Buena Vista. General Scott landed at Vera 
Cruz, and capturing, by hard fighting, many cities and 
castles, became master of the capital, which he entered 
September i6th, 1847. Meanwhile General Kearney had 
conquered New Mexico, and, with Fremont and Stockton, 
completed the conquest of California. These territories 
were ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Guada- 
lupe Hidalgo, which fixed the southern boundary of Texas 
at the Rio Grande. 

773. Rich deposits of gold had already been discovered 
in California, and a tide of adventurers, from all parts of 
the world, immediately set toward the diggings. San 
Francisco, from an obscure Spanish "mission," soon be- 
came a thriving city, destined, doubtless, to become one 
of the greatest in the world. Its importance has been 
immensely increased by the completion of a railway across 
the continent, in 1869, and by the opening of a line of 
steamships to Japan and China. 

774. In spite of some discords and dangers, the bond 
of Union, established in 1787 (§759), had been strong 
enough, so far, to keep the several states at peace with 
each other. But the great increase of territory, by the 
Mexican War, gave new force to the elements of discord 
between the north and the south. The former favored 
a strong central government, the latter the sovereignty 
of the several states. A subject of bitter controversy was 
negro slavery, which the north desired to exclude from 
the new states and territories. 

775. Soon after the election of Abraham Lincoln, in 
i860, eleven southern states seceded from the Union, and 
chose Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, to be their president. 
War was begun in April, 1861, by an attack of the Con- 
federate forces upon Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbor. 
The south had at first the advantage of better trained 
officers; and the north sustained a severe defeat at Bull 



THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 323 

Run, July 21. The Federal Congress immediately voted 
half a million of men, and 500 millions of dollars, for a 
more vigorous prosecution of the war, 

776. A large part of the Atlantic coast was regained, 
by the Union forces, in the autumn of 1861; and, during 
the next two years, several great victories reopened the 
Mississippi to federal commerce. 

So long as the southern states remained in the Union, 
their holding of slaves had not been interfered with by 
the general government. They were now beyond its pro- 
tection; and the president's proclamation of January ist, 
1863, declared all negroes free, and invited them to enlist 
in the Federal fleets or armies. 

777. The southern armies, under General Lee, made 
their farthest advance to the northward in an invasion of 
Pennsylvania, June, 1863; but they were defeated, at 
Gettysburg, during the first three days of July. This was 
the turning-point of the war, though much hard fighting 
was yet to be done on both sides. The next spring a 
general forward movement was made by the Union forces, 
from the Potomac to the James River, and from the Ten- 
nessee southeast to the Adantic. Richmond and Peters- 
burg, in Virginia, were besieged by the armies of Grant; 
Atlanta, Savannah, Charleston, and Columbia were taken 
by those of Sherman. 

778. In the autumn of 1864, President Lincoln was 
reelected, and the south, now nearly exhausted, put forth 
her last resources. After three days' hard fighting, in 
Virginia, the Confederate government aban- 
doned Richmond, its capital, and Generals 

Lee and Johnston soon afterward surrendered their entire 
commands. The war being thus ended, the whole country 
observed the fourth anniversary of its beginning as a day 
of thanksgiving. Its joy was suddenly turned into grief 
and horror by news of the murder of the president. But 



324 MODERN HISTORY. 

this crime did not break the peace which had been so 
happily restored. Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, 
quietly succeeded to the highest office. The late Confed- 
erate States repealed their ordinances of secession, and 
consented to amendments of the Constitution, which put 
an end to slavery. 

779. The United States emerged from the civil war 
with a debt of nearly $3,000,000,000. A million of lives 
had either been ended in battle or enfeebled by wounds 
and disease; industries were paralyzed, while an immense 
issue of paper money had tempted the people to unprece- 
dented extravagance; so that it may be long before the 
prosperity of the first half of the century is renewed. 

780. In 1867, all the Russian possessions in America 
were purchased by the United States. Difficulties have 
occurred with the Indians of the western plains, who were 
either dissatisfied with the lands reserved to them or justly 
indignant at the frauds of agents and traders appointed 
by the government. The savages are fierce, cruel, and 
treacherous; and it may be feared that their intercourse 
with white men has not been of a nature to improve 
their characters. 

781. The one hundredth anniversary of American inde- 
pendence was celebrated, in the summer of 1876, by a 
grand exposition, at Philadelphia, of the whole world's 
industries and arts. Dom Pedro II., the enlightened and 
energetic emperor of Brazil, was present and took a hearty 
interest in the opening ceremonies. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. — BOOK III. 



Section 

1. How was kingly power affected by the introduction 

of gunpowder ? 440 

2. Describe the condition of Italy, and the wars of 

Charles VIII. of France. 441-443 

3. What were their results ? 444 

4. Describe the wars of Louis XII. in Italy. 445-447 

5. The character of Leo X. Of Ferdinand of Spain. 448 

6. The character and reign of Francis I. 

449-452, 465, 468, 474 

7. What led to the Reformation? 453, 455 

8. Tell the story of Luther. 454, 456, 457 

9. Why were the reformers called Protestants? 458 

10. What nations embraced their doctrines ? 459 

11. Describe Turkish progress under Solyman. 460, 462-467 

12. Tell the story of Pope Clement VII. 461, 492 

13. What relation was Charles V. to Charles the Bold of 

Burgundy ? 413, 424, 444 

14. Describe his reign and retirement. 450-471 

15. Loyola and the Jesuits. 472 

16. The reign of Louis XII. in France. 473 

17. Henry II., and the Guises. 475-478 

18. Catherine de Medici, her sons, the religious wars. 478-485 

19. What was done in England during the reign of 

Henry VII. ? 486, 487 

20. Describe the reign and character of Henry VIII. 488-497 

21. Tell the story of Wolsey. 490-493 

22. Of Edward VI., Somerset, and Northumberland. 497-500 

23. Of Jane Grey and Mary Tudor. 499 - 502 

24. Of Elizabeth. 503-511 

25. Describe the Netherlands under Charles V. 512, 513 

26. The policy and the agents of Philip II. 514-524 

27. The character and measures of William the Silent. 514-521 

{325) 



326 QUESTIONS.— BOOK III. 

28. What became of the seven northern, and the ten 

southern provinces ? 517, 519, 523 

29. Describe James I. of England, and the Puritans. 526, 527 

30. Tell the story of Sir Walter Raleigh. 507, 528 

31. What colonies were formed in James' reign? 529 

32. What was his foreign policy ? 530 
TyT^. Describe Charles I. and his dealings with parliament. 531, 532 

34. Tell the stories of Hampden, Strafford, Laud. 533-535 

35. Describe the two parties and the civil war. 536, 537 

36. What became of Charles I. ? 538 

37. What differences between Scotland and England fol- 

lowed his death ? 539 

38. Describe the war with Holland. 540 

39. Tell the story of the Long Parliament. 535, 541 

40. Of Cromwell's Protectorate, and what followed. 542, 543 

41. Describe the restoration and character of Charles H. 544-546 

42. What plots, real or supposed, during his reign ? 547, 548 

43. What parties arose? What do we owe to the Whigs? 549 

44. Name some great men of the time. 550 

45. Describe the reign of James H. 551, 552 

46. Tell the history of William of Orange. 553-555 

47. Of the last of the Stuarts. 556, 557 

48. How were the Hapsburg dominions divided upon the 

death of Charles V. ? 559 

49. Describe the wars with the Turks. 560-563 

50. Maximilian H. and Rudolph H. 562 

51. The beginning of the Thirty Years' War. 564 

52. Wallenstein's character and career. 565-570 

53. Gustavus Adolphus. 567-569 

54. Describe the remaining years of the war. 570, 571 

55. What was accomplished by the Treaty of Westphalia? 572, 573 

56. Describe Portuguese settlements in the east and west. 574-576 

57. The policy of Spain toward her colonies. 577-579 

58. The French settlements in America. 580-582 

59. The Dutch " " 583 

60. The English " " 584 

61. Tell the history of Sweden to Christina's abdication. 585, 586 

62. Describe the constitution of Poland. 587 

63. Tell the history of Russia from Ivan HL to Peter I. 588, 589 

64. The story of Peter the Great. 590-597 

65. Of Charles XIL of Sweden. 593 - 596 



QUESTIONS.— BOOK III. 327 

66. The early history of Prussia. 598, 599 

67. Describe its second king. 600, 601 

68. Tell the story of Frederic the Great. 602, 603, 606, 607 

69. Describe the War of the Austrian Succession. 602-605 

70. Catherine the Great and the Partitions of Poland. 608-610 

71. The first of the Bourbons and his reign in France. 61 1 -613 

72. The regency of Marie de Medici. 614 

73. Tell the history and policy of Richelieu. 615 -617 

74. Describe the reign of Louis XIV., and the circum- 

stances of its beginning. 618-620 

75. What followed Mazarin's death? 621 

76. Describe Louis' wars in the Spanish Netherlands 

and Holland. 622-624 

77. His persecutions of the Huguenots. 625, 626 

78. His wars on the Rhine. 627 

79. The causes and incidents of the War of the 

Spanish Succession. 628-630 

80. Louis' death, and the writers of his age. 631, 632 

81. What was done during the Regency? 633 

82. In what wars did Louis XV. engage ? 634, 635 

83. What possessions were lost by France? 636 

84. Describe the first 15 years of the reign of Louis XVI. 637-639 

85. The reign of George I. in England. 640-641 

86. Of George II., and the invasion of the 

young Pretender. 642, 643 

87. What part had England and her colonies in the 

Seven Years' War? 644-646 

%%. Describe George III., aud his policy in England and 

America. 647-649 

89. Tell the story of the American Revolution. 650-652 

90. What were the consequences to England of the 

French Revolution ? 653, 654 

91. Describe George IV., and his reign. 655, 656 

92. The reign of William IV. 657, 658 

93. The condition of Victoria's empire during the 

early years of her reign. 659-661 

94. The war in the Crimea. 662 - 665 

95. The rise of the British-Indian Empire. 666, 667 

96. What was done by Warren Hastings? 668, 669 

97. Describe the wars and dealings with China. 670, 671 

98. The Sepoy Rebellion. 672-674 



32^ 



QUESTIONS.— BOOK III. 



99. Tell the history of Australia. 675 

100. What other dominions has England in the East? 676 

loi. What causes led to the French Revolution? 677, 678 

102. What was done by the National Assembly? 679 

103. What, by the mob ? 680 

104. Describe the Girondists, the Jacobins, and the Reign 

of Terror. 681-683 

105. What became of the royal family? 684, 685 

106. What, of the three leaders of the Jacobins? 686-688 

107. Describe the Coalition. What was done at Toulon? 689 

108. Effects of the Revolution in Paris. In the West. 690 

109. What change was made by the Directory? 691 
no. What was done in Holland, Belgium, and Italy? 692, 693 

111. Describe Bonaparte's Egyptian campaign. 694 

112. How was the Second Coalition broken up? 695 

113. What successive titles had Napoleon? 695, 697 

114. What changes did he make in Germany? 698, 699 

115. Describe the death of Nelson, 700 

116. What was done by Napoleon in the North? 701-703 

117. In the south of Europe? 704-705 

118. In Austria in 1809? 706 

119. Describe the causes and incidents of Napoleon's 

war Math Russia. 707-709 

120. The campaigns of 1813, and 181 4. 710-712 

121. The second reign of Napoleon, and its close. 713 

122. What was done by the Congress of Vienna? 714-716 

123. Describe the Holy Alliance, and its dealings with 

Spain, Italy, and Germany. 717-720 

124. Tell the story of the Greek Revolution. 721-723 

125. Describe the Revolutions of 1830. 724, 725 

126. The reign of Louis Philippe. 726-728 

127. The Revolutions of 1848. 729-735 

128. How did Napoleon III. become Emperor of the 

French? 736-738 

129. Describe the War of Italian Nationality. 739-44I 

130. The French interference in Mexico. 742 

131. The Seven Weeks' War and its consequences 

in Austria. 743 - 745 

132. The Spanish Revolution, and candidates for the 

crown, 747 

133. The Franco-Prussian War. 74^-753 



QUESTIONS.— BOOK HI. 



329 



134. 
135- 
136. 

138. 
139- 
140. 
141. 
142. 

143- 
144. 



The War of the Commune. 
What recent changes in Italy, France, and Spain ? 
What has occurred in Turkey ? 
How did the United States become settled after the 

Revolution ? 
Describe the war with England. 

The following years. 

The Spanish American Revolutions. 

The annexation of Texas and its consequences. 
How has California gained importance. 
Describe the war between the States, its causes and 

results. 
Mention some recent events. 



754, 


755 


756, 


757 




758 


759, 


760 


761- 


-763 


764, 


765 


766- 


-770 


771, 


772 




773 


774- 


-779 


780, 


781 



DESCENT, FROM EDWARD IH., OF THE THREE ROYAL 
HOUSES OF LANCASTER, YORK, AND TUDOR. 



Edvvakd III. 

I 



Edward, 
Wales, d 



Richard 
deposed, 



Pr. of 
1376- 



II. 

1399. 



Lionel, Duke of J. of Gaunt, m. 3 Cath. Swynford. Edmund, D. of 



Clarence, 

I 
Philippa in. 
Edm. Mortimer, 
Earl of March. 

I 
Rog. Mortimer, 
Eurl of March. 



Duke of Lan 
caster. 

I 
Henry IV. 



John Beaufort, 
E. of Somerset. 

iohn Beaufort, 
). of Somerset. 

I 



Edm. Mo 
Earl of M 
d. 1424. 



rtimer, Anne Mortimer 
arch. m. Richard, E, 
of Cambridge. 



Henry V. m. 

Catherine of 

France, who m. 2 Owen Tudor. 

Henry VI. Edm. Tudor, 

I Earl of 

Edward, Pr. of Richmond, m. Margaret 
Wales, d. 1471. Beaufort. 



York. 

Richard, Earl 
of Cambridge, 
beheaded, 1415. 

I 
Richard, D. of 
York, died at 
Wakefield, 
1460. 



Henry VII. 



Edward IV. 



George, D. of 
Clarence. 



Richard III. 



Elizabeth 

m. Henry VII. 



Edward V. 
d. 1483. 



Richard, Duke 
of York. 



I 1 

Edward, E. of Margaret, 
Warwick, Countess of 

beheaded, 1499. Salisbury, 

beheaded, 1541. 



Hist. —28. 



INDEX. 



Find names of sovereigns under names of their respective countries. 
Where the list is continuous, only one date, that of accession, is 
added to each name. Figures refer to pages. 



Abbas^sides, 136, 167. 

Abelard (iib^u lar), 186. 

Abraham, 21. 

Ab^salom, 22. 

Aca^dia, 250. 

Acha^'ia, Province of,. 97. 

Achsean League, 80, 81. 

Achse'ans, 48, 52. 

AchiFles, 45. 

Acre (a^ker), 156, 158, 159, 295. 

Ac^tium, 107. 

Adams, J., 318. 

Addison, J., 241. 

AdoFphus, 122. 

Adoni^jah, 22. 

Adrian VI., Pope, 201, 204. 

Adriatic, 76, 140, 157, 167. 

^ge^an Sea, 19, 80, 48, 58. 

^^gos Pot^ami, 62. 

^gi/sae, 94. 

^o^lians, 48. 

M\n\, 91. 

^s^chylus, 67-69. 

^to^lian League, 80. 

Africa, 8, 17, 27, 34, 39, 40, 135, 

206. 
Africa, Province of, 97, 102, 105, 

121, 122, 132. 
Agamem^non, 45. 
Agesila^us, 62, 64. 



Agincourt (ii zhax koor'), 173. 
Agrarian Laws, 87, 89, 91, 99. 
Agrippi^na, 111. 
Aix (aks) in Provence, 101. 
Aix-la-Chapelle, 141, 143; Treaty 

of, 261, 268. 
AFaric, 122. 

Albert the Great, theologian, 186. 
" Prince of Saxe-Coburg, 

281. 
Albigenses (al be zhoN^'sez), 176, 

177. 
Alcibi^ades, 61, 62. 
Alck^maar, 226. 
Alc^man, 68. 
Aleman^ni, 121, 129. 
Alexander the Great. See Macedon. 
Alexander VL, Pope, 198, 250. 
Alexandria, 75, 78, 79, 107, 135, 

295. 
Algon^quins, 250. 
Alleghany Mts., 276. 
Allia, K., 88. 
Alps, 88, 95, 200. 
AFsiice, 266. 
Alva, Duke of, 225, 226. 
Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, 

122. 
America, 8, 191-193, 208, 209, 229, 

235, 249-253, 269-273. 



(331) 



Ame 



INDEX. 



Aus 



American Independence, Declar- 


A^res, God of war, 46. 


ation of, 278, 319; War of 


Aristi^des, 58. 


273, 276-278, 285; Annivers- 


Aristoph^anes, 69. 


ary of, 324. 


Aristotle, 72, 


Amiens (a me JiN^), Treaty of, 295, 


Aryans, 10, 13, 16, 19, 25, 42, 43, 


296. 


120. 


Amsterdam, 256, 268. 


As^calon, 156. 


Anac^reon, 48. 


Asia, 7-33, 47, 133, 153, 159, 166, 


Anaxag^oras, 70. 


167. 


Angles, 129. 


Asia Minor, 9, 19-21, 26, 43, 50, 58, 


AnjoLi (oN^zhoo) county, 142, 157. 


74, 77, 78, 89, 121, 122, 154. 


Charles, Ct. of, 162, 177. 


Asia, Kom. Prov. of, 97, 102. 


Louis, D. of, 179. 


Assyria, Assyrians, 10-15, 23, 112. 


Francis, D. of, 227. 


" Kings of: 


Philip, D. of. See Philip 


Tiglathi-nin (B. C. 1250), 11. 


V. of Spain. 


Tiglath-pileser (1120-1100), 


Anne Boleyn (booFin), 217, 218. 


11. 


" of Austria, 266, 267. 


Iva Lush IV. (810-781), 11. 


" of Brittany, 190. 


Tiglath-pileser II. (745-727), 


" of Cleves, 218. 


12. 


Anthela, 50. 


Sargon (721), 12, 14, 18. 


Antioch, on the Orontes, 77, 154, 


Sennacherib (705), 12, 13 


155, 158. 


Esarhaddon (681-667), 12. 


Antony, Mark, 79, 106, 107. 


Asshur-bani-pal (664-642), 12, 


Antwerp, 225, 227, 228. 


13. 


Apennines, 88. 


As^trachan, 255. 


Aphrodi^te, 46. 


Astu^rias, 98, 135. 


Apis, 38. 


Athe^na, 46, 72. 


Apollo, 46-50, 60, 68, 84. 


Athens, Athenians, 30, 53-73, 80, 


Apulians, 91. 


81, 121. 


Aquinas, Thos., 186. 


Athens, Senate of, 119. 


Aquitaine^ 138, 151, 157. 176. 


Atlantic Ocean, 39, 40, 142, 191. 


Ara^bia, Arabs, 12, 18, 135-137. 


At^tica, 44, 45, 56. 


Aral Sea, 26. 


At^tila, 123. 


Arau^sio (Orange), 101. 


Au^erstadt (ow^er stiit), 297. 


Arbe^a, 31, 32, 75. 


Augsburg (owgz^boorg). Confes- 


Arcadian League, 64. 


sion of, 205. 


Arcadians, 53. 


Augurs, 85, 87, 90. 


Archangel, 255. 


Aurungzebe, 284. 


Architecture, 10, 13, 39, 72, 73, 


Austra^lia, 287, 288. 


109, 132, 148. 


Austria, Austrians, 255, 260, 261, 


Arctic Ocean, 255. 


295. 



(332) 



Aus 



INDEX. 



Bla 



Austria, Dukes of, 157, 242. 


Barbarossa of Algiers, 206. 


" Maria Theresa, Arcli- 


Barnet, battle at, 175. 


duchess of, 260-263, 272. 


Bartholomew, St., massacre on 


Austria, Hereditary Emperors of: 


day of, 212, 213. 


Francis I. (1804), 296, 299. 


Basle (bill), Council at, 184. 


Ferdinand (1835), 308. 


Bastile (-tceK), destroyed, 290. 


Francis Joseph I. (1848), 308, 


Batavian Republic, 294, 


313. 


Bavaria, Bavarians, 139, 142, 261. 


Austria, House of. See Hups- 


" Charles Albert, Elector 


hurgs. 


of, 260 (Charles VII., Em- 


Avars, 139. 


peror). 


Avignon (a ven yoN^), 163, 178. 


Beaujeu (bo^zhu), Anne of, 210. 


Avon, R., 172. 


Becket, Thomas a, 169, 170, 176. 




Bede, The Venerable, 186. 


Ba^al, 115. 


" Beggars," The, 225-228. 


Babel, 9. 


Belgian Republic, formed of Aus- 


Baber, 167. 


trian Netherlands. 294, 295. 


Babylon, 10-17, 23, 26, 75, 76. 


Belgium, Kingdom of, 130, 304, 


Babylonian Empire, 12-15, 32, 36. 


306. 


" " Sovereigns of: 


Belgium, King of, Leopold I. (A. 


Nabonassar (B. C. 747), 14. 


D. 1830-1865), 306. 


Nabopolassar (625), 13-15. 


Belgrade, 168. 


Nebuchadnezzar (604-551), 


Belisa^rius, 132. 


15, 18, 23, 24, 26. 


Ben^even^tum, 92. 


Nabonadius (555), 16. 


Bengal, 285. 


Belshazzar (539-538), 16, 26. 


Berlin^ 259, 262, 297, 298. 


Bacchan^tes, 47. 


Bernadotte, 299. 


Bacon, Francis, 223. 


Bernard of Clairvaux (-vo), 156. 


Roger, 186. 


Bethlehem, 109, 157. 


Bactria, 10, 26, 42, 77, 78. 


Bias of Prie^ne, 70. 


Bagdad, 136, 167. 


Bible, Hebrew, 24; trans, into 


Balakla^va, 282. 


Greek, 79; into Russ., 147; 


Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 192. 


into English, 172, 231; into 


Baltic Sea, 17, 160, 165, 247, 255, 


German, 203; source of Lom- 


257, 282. 


bard laws, 131; printed, 190; 


Bankers, Italian, 163, 164. 


in Switzerland, 204. 


Ban^nockburn^, 171. 


Bismarck, 312, 313. 


Barbacan, 158. 


Bithyn^ia, 19, 118. 


Barbarians, 7, 8, 19, 28, 29, 101, 


Black Death, The, 178. 


116-118, 120-123, 127. 


Black Sea, 19, 45, 62, 121, 164, 


Barbarians (so called by Greeks), 


166, 255, 282, 306. 


49, 64. 


Blake, Admiral, 235. 



(333) 



Ble 



INDEX. 



Caes 



Blenheim (-hime), 270. 




Brit^tany, Anne, Duchess of, 190. 


Boccaccio (bok kat^cho), 187. 




Bruce, Rob't, 170, 171. 


Boeo^tia, 60, 63, 67. 




Bru^ges, 165. 


Bo^emond of Taranto, 154. 




Bru^sa, 167. 


Bohemia, Bohemians, 131, 


183, 


Brussels^ 226. 


184, 205, 243-246, 261. 




Union of, 227. 


Bolivar, Simon, 820, 321. 




Bruttium, 96. 


Bolivia, 321. 




Buckingham, Geo., Duke of, 232. 


Bologna (bo lon^ya), 186. 




Buda, 205, 206. 


Bombay, 285. 




Buena Vista (bwa^na), battle of. 


Bonaparte, Jerome, 298. 




322. 


Joseph, 298, 299. 




Buenos Ayres (bwa'nos i^res). 


Louis, 298, 299. 




320, 321. 


Napoleon, 293- 


296. 


Bulgarians, 131, 133. 


See France, Sovereigns of 




Bunker Hill, battle of, 277, 278. 


Bossuet (bos swa^), 271. 




Bunyan, John, 238. 


Boston, tea destroyed at, 277. 




Bur^goyne, Gen., 278. 


Bos worth, battle at, 175. 




Burgundj', Burgundians, 121, 129, 


Bothwell, Earl of, 221. 




138, 141, note, 143, 151, 201, 


Boulogne (boo loN^, 207. 




224. 


Bourbon (boor boN^), Duke 


of, 


Burgundy, Dukes of: 


201. 




Philip the Bold (A. D. 1363), 


Bourbon, House of, 260, 264, 


270, 


179. 


296, 304, 313. 




John the Fearless (1404), 179. 


Bourbon, Family Compact, 


272, 


Philip the Good (1419), 179, 


273. 




180. 


Boyle, 238. 




Charles the Bold (1467), 180, 


Boyne R., battle at, 240. 




181. 


Bozzil^ris (bot ziVris) Marco, 


305. 


Duchess Mary of (1477-1482), 


Brad^dock, Gen., 276. 




181, 185. 


Bragan^zas, 298. 




Burke, Edmund, 285. 


Bral/mins, 42. 




Bute, Earl of, 277. 


Bran^denburg, 245, 255, 259. 




Byron, Lord, 279. 


Bran^dywine, battle of, 278. 




Byzantium, 118. 


BraziF, 192, 249, 298. 






Pedro II., Emperor 


of. 


Cabot, S., 191. 


324. 




Ca^diz, 228. 


Bretigny (bret een^'ye), Treaty of, 


Caesar, Julius, 104-106. 


172. 




" Augustus (Octavianus), 107. 


Briel (breel), 226. 




See Rom. Etnpire. 


Britain, 17, 19, 104, 112, 114, 


121, 


Caesar (title), 105, note, 116, 117, 


122. 




260, 296. 



(334) 



Cai 



INDEX. 



Cle 



Cairo (kl^ro), 295. 
Calah, 13. 

Calais (kji laO, 171, 180, 220. 
Calcutta, 285. 
California, 193, 322. 
Calvin, John, 204, 212. 
Cambray'', League of, 199. 
Treaty at, 201. 
Campa^nia, 104, 112. 
Campbell, Sir C, 287. 
Cam^po For^mio, Treaty of, 295. 
Canaanites, 17. 
Can^ada, 250, 251, 280, 319. 
Can^nie, 96. 
Canos'sa, 145. 
Canterbury, 169. 
Canton, 286. 

Capet (ka pt/), 151, 176, 291. 
Cappado^'cia, 19, 31. 
Carabo'bo, battle at, 321. 
Carac^cas, 320. 
Carbonii^ri, 304. 
Car^chemish, 19, 36. 
Caribbean Sea, 320. 
Carlos, bro. of Ferdinand VII. of 

Spain, 307. 
Carlos, grandson of above, 313. 
Carlot^ta, Empress, 312. 
Carolina, U. S., 251. 
Caroline of Brunswick, 279, 
Car^rhc% 104. 
Car^thage, 18, 26, 27, 39-41, 93-97, 

106, 123, 132. 
Carys^tus, 56. 
Cashmere, 15. 
Cassan^der, 77. 
Castes in Egypt, 38, 39. 
Castile (-teeK), 190. 
Catherine of Aragon, 198, 216. 

217. 
Catherine Howard, 218. 
Parr, 218. 



Catiline, 103. 

Cato, 97. 

Caudine Forks, battle at, 90. 

Cawnpore^ 287. 

Caxton, Wm., 175. 

Cecil, 223. 

Celts, 129, 131. 

Ceylon^ 18. 

Chterone'a, 65. 

ChaldieX Chalda3^ans, 10, 13, 15. 

Chalons (shii Ion''), 123. 

Champagne (-pane''), 151. 

Champlain', Lake, 251, 319. 

Samuel, 251. 
Charlemagne. See Roman Em- 

pire Revived. 
Charles MarteF, 136, 138. 

" of Lorraine, 261. 
Charleston, U. S., 322, 323. 
Charlotte, Princess, 279. 
Charter, The Great (Magna 

Charta), 170. 
Charterhouse, Monks of, 218. 
Chau^cer, 188. 
Chesapeake Bay, 191, 319. 
Chi^lo of Sparta, 70. 
China, 8, 159, 166, 167, 189, 209, 

249, 280, 286, 322. 
Christians, under Moslem rule, 

139, 283. 
Christians, under Roman Empire, 

111, 113, 116-119, 127. 
Cicero, 103, 107. 
Cilicia, 19. 
Cimbri, 101. 

Cimmerians, Crimeans, 19. 
Ci^mon, 58, 59. 
Cities, 7, 128, 164, 165, 176. 
Civil War, in England, 234. 

" " in America, 322-324. 
Clazom^ense, 63. 
Clement, Monk, 214. 



(335) 



Cle 



INDEX. 



Dam 



Clem^ent V., Pope, 163, 178. 
Clement VII., Pope, 204, 205, 

217. 
CleoVulus, 70. 
Cleo^iiie, 49. 

Clients, Kom., 83, 87, 98. 
Cli^sthenes, 55, 
Clive, Piobt, 285. 
ClotiFda, 129. 
Clovis, 129, 130. 

" Successors of, 130, 135, 150. 
Cnidus (ni^dus), 48, 63. 
Colbert (-ber^), 268, 269. 
Colchis (koKkis), 45. 
Coligny (ko leen'ye), 212, 251. 
Colise^um, 112. 
Colom^bia, 321. 
Colonies, ancient, 40, 44, 70, 89, 

92. 
Colonies, modern European, 248- 

253, 276. 
Columbus, Christopher, 191, 192. 
Commerce, 15-18, 22, 40, 52, 78, 

133, 159, 163-165, 189, 191, 

221, 229, 284-286. 
Commonwealth, Eng., 234-236. 
Concini (-che'ne), 265. 
Conde^ Prince of, 267. 
Con^stance, Peace of, 162. 

Council of, 184, 185, 

203. 
Constantine, Grand Duke, 306. 
Constantino^ple, 118, 123, 130, 

132, 133, 135, 140, 146, 147, 

154, 157, 159, 167, 168, 205, 

281. 
Constantius, Caesar, 117. 
Consuls, Kom., 83, 94, 95, 103-105, 

108, 130, 139. 
Corey 'ra, 61. 
Corday, Charlotte, 292. 
Cor^dova, 136. 



Corinth, 49, 81, 106, 121. 

" Congresses at, 65, 74. 
Corinthian War, 62, 63. 
Coriola^nus, 87, 88. 
Corneille (kor naK), 271. 
Cornelia, 100. 
Corn Laws, 279-281. 
Cornwallis, Lord, 278. 
Coronse^a, 60, 63. 
Cor^sica, 94, 95. 
Corun^na, 299. 
Cos, 48. 

Cos^sacks, 19, 262. 
" Covenanters," 233-235. 
Cranmer, 217-220. 
Crassus, 103, 104. 
Cre^cy (kra se), 171. 
Crete, 45, 137, 163. 
Crime'a, 76. 

Tartars of, 263. 

War in, 281, 282. 
Croats, 245. 
Crce'sus, 19, 48. 
Cromwell, O., 234-236, 238. 

R., 236. 
Cronstadt, 282. 
Croto''na, 71. 
Crusades, 153-160. 
Ctes''iphon, 114. 
Cuba, 192. 
Cullo^den, 275. 
Cunax^a, 31. 

Custozza (kus tod^za), 313. 
Cyc^lades, 50. 
Cynoceph^ala?, 80, 81. 
Cyprus, 26, 63, 160, 163. 
Cyre^ne, 79. 
Cyrus, the Younger, 30, 31, 70. 

Da^cia, 112. 
Damas^cus, 18, 134. 
Damiet^ta, 157, 158. 



(336) 



Dan 



INDEX. 



Eng 



Danes in England, 147, 

Dan^te, 164, 187. 

Danton, 202, 20.]. 

Dant'zic, 207. 

Dan^ibe, R.. 28, 101, 100, IIG, 121 

1G8, 281, 282. 
Dark Ages, 127, 128, 141, 161. 
Darnley, Lord, 221. 
David, 15, 22. 
Dead Sea, 10. 
Decatur, Com,, 320. 
Decius, Consul, 00. 
Delaware, R., 251, 253. 
Delhi, 168, 284, 287. 
Deles, Isl., 40, 58. 
DeFphi, 47, 48, 50, 57. 
Deluge, The, 0, 13, 10. 
Deme''ter, 46, 47. 
Demos^thenes, 65, 80. 
Denmark, 146, 204, 244, 254, 255, 

257, 312. 
Denmark, Sovereigns of: 

Margaret (A.^D. 1387-1412), 
254. 

Christian I. (1457), 254. 
Det^tingen, battle, 275. 
Di^do, 30. 
Diets, of Empire, 140, 144, 157, 

203, 247. 
Dionys^is, 47, 60. 
Directory, French, 204, 205. 
Dorians, 48-53. 
Dorylie'um, 154. 
Dowlah, Surajah, 283. 
Drawee, 53. 

Drake, Francis 221, 222. 
Dublin, 234. 
Dunbar, battle, 235. 
Dunkirk, 236. 
Du Quesne (kane), Ft., 276. 
Dutch, 227-220, 235, 236, 248. 
East India Co., 231, 284-287. 

Hist. 20. {3;}7) 



Ebro, R. (r/bro), 05, 130. 

Ecbat^ana, 25, 27. 

Edinburgh (-boro), 235, 275. 

Edward, Black Prince, 171, 172. 

Egmont, Count, 226. 

Egypt, Egyptians, 10-12, 21, 26, 

27, 30, 31, 34-30, 74-80, 155- 

157, 205. 
Eg3'pt, Greek Rulers of: 

Ptolemy I. (B. C. 323), 77, 78. 

Ptolemy II. (283), 70. 

Ptolemy III. (247-222), 70. 

Cleopatra (51-30), 70, 80, 107. 
Eleanor of Aquitaine, 176. 
Electors, German, 182. 
Elephan^tis, 34. 
Eleusinian Mysteries, 47, 61. 
Elis, 40. 
Elizabeth, Electress Palatine, 232, 

241. 
England, 120, 147, 140, 150, 160- 

175, 215-223, 230-241, 268- 

270, 274-282. 
England, Sovereigns of: 

Alfred (A. D. 871-001), 147, 
188. 

Ethelred II. (078-1016), 147. 

Edward the Confessor (1042), 
140. 

Harold II. (1066), 140. 

NORMAN LINK. 

William I. (1066), 140. 
II. (1087), 149. 
Henry I. (1100), 149, 150. 
Stephen (1135), 150, 169. 



PLANTAGENETS. 



Henry 

176. 
Richard 

170. 



II. (1154), 160, 170, 
I. (1180), 156-159, 



Eng 



IiXDEX. 



Fis 



England (Plantagenets, contin'd) : 
John (1199), 156, 170. 
Henry III. (1216), 170, 177. 
Edward I. (1272), 158, 170, 

277. 
Edward II. (1307), 171. 

" III. (1327), 171, 172. 
Kichard II. (1377), 172. 

HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

Henry IV. (1399), 172, 173. 
V. (1413), 173, 179, 

180. 
Henry VI. (1422), 173-175, 

180. 

HOUSE OF YORK. 

Edward IV. (1461), 174, 175. 

V. 1483), 175. 
Richard III. (1483), 175. 



Henry VII. (1485), 175, 191, 

215. 
Henry VIII. (1509), 198, 200, 

201, 207, 215-219. 
Edward VI. (1547), 218, 219. 
Mary I. (1553), 216, 219, 220. 
Elizabeth (1558), 212, 219- 

223, 226, 252. 



James I. (1603), 230-232. 
Charles I. (1625-1648), 232- 

234. 
Charles II. (1660), 234-238. 
James II. (1685), 238-240. 

r William III. (1688), 239, 

I 240, 256, 269. 

I Mary II. (1688-1694), 239, 

L 240. 
Anne (1702), 240, 241, 274. 



England, Sovereigns of (contin'd) : 

HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

George I. (1714), 274, 275. 
" II. (1727), 275, 276. 
" III. (1760), 276-279, 
297. 

George IV. (1820), 279. 

William IV. (1830), 280. 

Victoria (1837), 280, 281, 288. 
English Language, 172, 188. 
Epaminondas, 64. 
Ephesus, 121. 
Ere^tria, 56. 
Erie, L., battle on, 319. 
Ethiopia, 11, 12. 
Etruscans, 82, 84-88, 91. 
Eubce^a, 56. 

Eudes, Count of Paris, 151. 
Eugenius IV., Pope, 184. 
Euphra^tes. 7, 10, 14, 15, 19, 22, 26, 

109, 115, 116, 155. 
Eurip^ides, 69. 
Europe, 8, 22, 53, 76, 120-123, 127- 

133, 139, etc. 
Eurybi^ades, 57. 
Euryin^edon, 58. 
Euxine. See Black Sea. 
Evesham, 170. 
Eylau (-/low), 298. 
Ez^ra, 24. 

Fa^bius, 96. 

Fair^fax, 234. 

FareK, 204. 

Fawkes, Guy, 231. 

Fen'elon, 271. 

Ferrii^ra, 184. 

Feudal System, 142, 143, 155, 159. 

Fiji Is., (VejeO' 288. 

Fire of London, 237. 

Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, 218. 



Fla 



INDEX. 



Fra 



Flanders, 151. 




France, Eulers of (continued): 


Flodden, battle, 21 G. 




House of Orleans. 


Florence, 104, 188, 198. 






Florida, 276. 




Louis XII. (1498), 199, 200, 


Foix (fwii) G. de, 200. 




210. 


Fontenaye^ battle, 141. 




Francis I. (1515), 200, 200, 


Fouquet (foo ka') 208. 




210, 211. 


France, French, 113, 122, 130 


135, 


Henry II. (1547), 211. 


130, 141, 147, 148, 150 


-158, 


Francis II. (1559), 212. 


173, 174, 170-181, 190, 


207, 


Charles IX. (1500), 212. 


210-214, 250, 251, 204 


-273, 


Henry III. (1574), 213, 214. 


289-316. 






France, Kulers of: 




Family or Bourbon. 


Hugh Capet (A. I). 


987), 


Henry IV. (1589), 212, 214, 


151. 




204, 205. 


Robert, surnamed the Pious 


Louis XIII. (1010), 205, 200. 


(990), 151. 




" XIV. (1043), 239, 240, 


Henry I. (1031), 152. 




251, 259, 200-271. 


Philip I. (1000). 




Louis XV. (1715), 271-273. 


Louis y I. (1108), 170. 




" XVL (1774-1793), 273, 


" VII. (1137), 156, 


109 


289-292. 


170. 




Louis XVII. (king only in 


Philip II. (1180), 150, 


170, 


name), 292. 


176. 




National Convention (1792), 


Louis VIII. (1223), 177. 




291-294. 


IX. (1226), 158, 


177. 


Directory (1795), 294, 295. 


Philip in. (1270), 177. 




Consulate, Bonaparte First 


IV. (1285), 178. 




Consul, (1799), 295, 290. 


Louis X. (1314), 178. 






Philip V. (1316), 178. 




First French Empire. 


Charles IV. (1322), 178. 




Napoleon I. (1804-1814), 290- 


Family of Valois. 




303. See Bonaparie. 


Philip VL (1328), 171, 1 


78. 


Bourbons Restored. 


John (1350), 171, 172, 17 


9. 




Charles V. (1364), 179. 




Louis XVIII. (1814), 294, 


" VI. (1380), 173, 1 


79. 


301, 306. 


" VII. (1422), 173, 


174, 


Charles X. (1824), 301, 306. 


179, 180. 






Louis XI. (1401), 180, 181. 


Second House of Orleans. 


Charles VIII. (1483), 


181, 


Louis Philippe (1830-1848), 


190, 197-199. 




300, 307. 



(339^ 



Fra 



INDEX. 



Goo 



France, Kulers of (continued): 
Second Frexch Kepublic. 

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, 
Pres., 308-310. 

Second French Empire. 

Napoleon III. (1852-1870), 
311-315. 

Third French Republic. 

A. Thiers, Pres. (1871), 315, 
31G. 

McMahon, Pres. (1873), 311, 
314, 316, 317. 
Franche Comte^ (froNsh ko». tr/), 

268. 
Franco^nia, 142. 
Frankfort, 207, 303. 
Franks, 118, 121, 122, 129, 130, 

138-143, 178, 269. 
Franks, Kings of: 

Charles Martel, 136, 138. 

Pepin, 138, 139. 

Charlemagne, 139 (see Rom. 
Enip. of the Wesi^ Charle- 
magne to Charles III). 

Eudes, 151. 

Charles the Simple, 147, 151. 
Frederic, Elector-Palatine, 232, 

244, 247. 
Fremont, Gen., 322. 
French Revolutions, 273, 285, 289- 

295, 303, 306-308. 
Friesland (freez^-), 226. 
Friuli (fre oo^le), 142. 
Fronde, The, 267. 
Fulton, Rob't, 320. 

Gaeta (ga a^tii), 309. 
Games, Greek, 49, 67. 
Ganges R., 7, 286. 



Gardner, Bishop, 220. 
GaribaKdi (-de), 309, 312. 
Gates, Gen., 278. 
Gaul, Gauls, 88, 91, 95, 96, 104, 

105, 121, 128. 
Ga^za, 156, 295. 
Gemblours (zhoN bloor^), 227. 
Genghis Khan, 158, 166, 167. 
Gen^oa, 163. 
Georgia, 276. 
German^icus, 110, 
Germany, Germans, 8, 104, 110, 
113, 115, 119-123, 129-132, 
136. 
Germany, Kings of, become Ro- 
man Emperors, 138-145, 161, 
162, 182-185. 
Germany, Rise of cities in, 164, 

165. 
Germany, Language and Litera- 
ture, 187, 188. 
Germany, Reformation and Wars 
of Religion in, 202-208, 243- 
247. 
Germany, Wars of Austria and 

Prussia, 259-263, 313. 
Germany, Wars with Napoleon, 

296-303. 
Germany, Revolutions of 1848, 

308,"^ 309. 
Germany, Unification of, 312-316. 
" William I., Emperor of 

(1871), 315. 
Gettysburg, 323. 
Ghent, 225, 227, 319. 
Ghibellines, 161, 164. 
Gibraltar, 270. 
Giron^dists, 291, 292. 
Glencoe, 240. 
Godfrey of Bouillon (boo eel yox^, 

154, 155. 
Good Hope, C. of, 40, 191. 



(310) 



Gor 



INDEX. 



Hil 



Gorgei (gur'gri), 308. 

Goths, IIG, 120-128, 127, 130-132, 

13o, HO. 
Grac'clms, Tiberius, 99. 

Cains, 100. 
Grand Alliance, The, 240. 
Grani^cus, R., 31, 74. 
Granson, battle, 181. 
"Great Powers," Five, 283, 304. 
Greece, Greeks, 9, 13, 19, 28-32, 
40-81, 97, 105, 121, 148, 279, 
280, 305, 306. 
Greece, Kings of: 

Otho of Bavaria (1832), 306. 
George of Denmark (1863), 
Gregory III., Pope, 138. 

YIL, " 144, 145. 
XL, " 163. 
Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty at, 

322. 
Guelders, 268. 
Guelfs, 161-164. 
Guia^na, 231. 
Guinea, 221. 
Guiscard^ Rob't, 148. 

Pvoger, 148, 149. 
Guise (geez). House of, 211-213. 
" Dukes of, 212-214. 
" Mary of, 211. 
Gunpowder, 159, 166, 189, 197. 
Gutenberg (goo^-), 190. 
Guthrun, 147. 

Haar^lem, 226. 
Hadriano^ple, 121. 
Halicarnas^sus, 48, 69. 
Hil^lys, R., 19. 
Ham, Hamites, 10, 34. 
Hamathites, 19, 
Ham^ilcar, 95. 
Hampden, John, 233. 
Han^nibal, 95-97. 



Handover, Electorate and King- 
dom, 275, 280, 297. 
Hanover, House of, in England, 
241, 274. 

Hanseatic League, 165. 

Hapsburgs, 162, 185, 201, 224, 242- 
247, 260-266, 270, 296, 304, 
308, 313. 

Haroun al Raschid, 136, 140. 

Harrison, Gen., 319. 

Has^drubal, 95. 

Hastings, battle of, 149. 
" Warren, 285. 

Hava^na, 276. 

Hay.nau (hi'now), 308. 

Hebrews, 11, 12, 17-24, 36, 42, 47, 
109, 191. 

Hebron, 22. 

Hecatae^is, 69. 

Hec^tor, 45. 

HeFicon, 67. 

He^liop^olis, 37, 38. 

Helle^nes, 43, 46, 48, See Greeks. 

Heriespont, 30, 31, 74, 79. 

Helots, 52, 59-61. 

Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles 
I. 232. 

Hephws^tus, 46. 

Hera, 46. 

Heracle^n, 91, 

Hercula'neum, 112. 

Her^cules, 44, 

Herman, 110, 

Her^manric, 121, 

Her^mes, 46. 

Herod^otus, 69. 

Heroes, Greek, 44, 45. 

Herzegovina (hert ze go ve^na), 
317. 

Hesiod, 67, 68, 
Hes^tia, 46. 

HiFdebrand. See Gregory VII. 
(341) 



Hin 



INDEX. 



Jam 



Hindustan^ 2G, 167, 248, 270, 284- 

287. 
Hippur^clms, 54. 
Hip''pias, 54. 
Hi^ram, 18. 
Hit^tites, 19. 
Ho^henlin^den, 295. 
Hohenstaufen (-stow^fen), 101, 102. 
Holland, 225-228, 235, 208-270, 

278, 298, 299, 304, 300. 
Holland, William I., King of, 

304. 
Holy Alliance, 304, 305. 
Holy Land. See Palestine. 
Homer, 45-49, 54, 00-08. 
Hong Kong, 286. 
Hor^ace, 109. 

Horn, Count., beheaded, 226. 
Horten^sius, 91. 
Hos^pitallers (Knights of St. 

John), 155, 100, 178, 204, 242. 
Howard, Lord, of Effingham, 222. 
Howe, Lord, 278. 
Hudson, Henry, 251. 

Eivcr, 236, 251, 320. 
Hugh the Great, 151. 
Huguenots, 212-214, 232, 251, 204- 

200, 269. 
Hungary, Hungarians, 139, 204- 

208, 243, 244, 201, 308. 
Huniii^des (-yii^daz), 108. 
Huns, 121, 123, 139, 142. 
Huron, Lake, 251. 
Huss (hooss), 183. 
Hy^der A^li, 285. 
Hyrea^nia, 20. 
Hyrca'nus, 103. 

IFiad, 45, 54, 241. 
Illyr^icum, Illyrians, 48, 105, 131. 
Images in churches, War for, 133, 
134, 138. 



India, 8, 10, 11, 15, 18, 28, 42, 70, 

100, 191, 255, 284-287. 
Indians, N. Am., 250, 270, 324. 
Indies, East and West, 191, 228, 

229. 
Indus, Pv., 7, 15, 76. 
Innocent III., Pope, 157, 170, 

176. 
Inquisition, Flemish, 225, 226. 

" Spanish, 192. 

lonians, 48-51, 67, 69. 
Ipsus, battle at, 77. 
Ireland, 169, 222, 231-235, 239, 

240, 281. 
Iroquois (ir o kwii), 251. 
Isabella, "Archduke," 228. 

" of France, Queen of 

England, 171. 
Israel, Israelites. See Hehrev:s. 

^' Jer^obo^am I., King of, 23. 
Issus, battle at, 31, 74. 
Italy, 19, 40, 43, 48, 82, 88-92, 
^101, 105, 118, 123, 128, 130- 

133, 137-144, 148, 161-164, 

197-201, 210, 211, 242, 265, 

271, 294, 295, 303, 304, 308- 

313, 316. 
Italy, King of, Victor Enianuel 

I. (1861), 311-313. 
Ith^aca, 67. 

Iturbide (e toor be^da), 321. 
Ivry (e^vre), battle at, 264. 

Jackson, Gen., 319. 

Jac^obins, 291-293. 

Jacobites, 274. 

Jacquerie (zhak^a re), 172. 

Jaffa, 156, 157, 295. 

Jamaica, 235, 280. 

James, Duke of York, 236, 237. 

See England, Kings of, James 

II. 



(342) 



Jam 



INDEX. 



Les 



Jamestown, 281. 
Jane Grey, 211). 


Kepler, 243. 

KeresV.tes, battle at, 243. 




" Seymour, 218. 


Kiev, 146. 




Jan^izaries, 169. 


Kirke, Col., 239. 




Japan, 8, 209, 249, 322. 
Japhet, 9, 19. 
Jarrow, 186. 


Koran, 134. 

Kos^cius^ko, 263. 

Kossuth (kosh shoot'), Louis, 


308. 


Jason, 45. 


Koster, Laurence, 190. 




Jefferson, Thomas, 319. 


Kot'zebue, 305. 




Jeffreys, Geo., 239. 


Kublai Khan, 167. 




Jena (yiVna), 297, 305. 
Jerome of Prague, 183. 


Laeedajmon, 44, 48. 




Jerusalem, 12, 18, 22, 24, 78, 103, 


•'Ladies' Peace," The, 201. 




112, 140, 153-158. 


Lafayette^ 290. 




Jerusalem, Kings of: 


La Fontaine^ 271. 




Godfrey (1099), 154, 155. 
Baldwin I. (1100), 155. 
Guy of Lusignan (1186-1192), 
156. 


Lancaster, House of, 173-175, 
Lii^res, 85. 
La Salle, 251. 
Las Castas, 192. 


215. 


Frederic II., Emp. (1229), 
158. 


Latimer, Bishop, 220. 

Latin Language, 128, 140, 186, 


187. 


Jesuits, 208, 209, 243, 249, 265. 


La'tium, Latins, 82, 86, 89-92. 


Jews, 191. See Ilchrews. 


Laud, Archbishop, 233. 




Joan of Arc, 173, 174, 180. 


Law, John, 271. 




John of Austria, 243, 247. 
John of Gaunt, 172. 


Laws, Pvoman, 88, 131, 133, 187. 
League of French Nobles, 213, 


John XXIII., Pope, 183. 
Jonah, 11. 


264, 266. 
Learning, 128, 136, 164, 186- 


-190. 


Juarez (wa'reth), 312. 


Leb'anon, 18. 




Judnea, Kingdom of, 78, 98. 


Legnano (len ya'no), battle at, 


Judah, Kingdom of, 12, 23. 
" Kings of: 
Josiah, Zedeldah, 23. 


162. 
Leipsic (lipe^-), battles at, 
301. 


245, 


Judas Maccabae^us, 78. 


Leith, 235. 




Jugur^tha, 100, 101. 


Lem'nos Isl., 63. 




Julius II., Pope, 199, 200. 
Junot (zhu noO, 298, 299. 


Leo IV., Pope, 137. 
" X., " 200, 201. 




Jupiter, 84. 


Leon'idas, 29, 57. 
Leonine City, 137, 316. 




Karnak, 39. 
Kazan, 255. 


Lepan'to, 243. 
Lep'idus, 106, 107. 




Kearney (kar^-). Gen., 322. 


Les'bos Isl., 61. 





(343) 



Leu 



INDEX. 



Mar 



Leuc^tru, buttle at, 04. 
Leuthen (loi^ten), 201. 
Lexington, 277. 
Leyden (Li^dn), 220. 
Liberals in Europe, 304-307. 
Libraries, 12, 54, 78, 79, 139, 188. 
Lib^ya, 75. 
Licinian Laws, 89. 
Lincoln, Abraham, 322-324. 
Literature, 10, 12, 13, 60-70, 70, 

79, 81, 109, 128, 187, 188, 223, 

241, 267, 271. 
Liv^^ 109. 
Locke, John, 238. 
Lodi (lo^de), 294. 
Loire (Iwar), 129, 173. 
Lollards, 173. 
Lombardy, Lombards, 101, 180, 

131, 138, 139, 148, 102, 103, 

187, 199. 
London, 105, 219, 228, 234-237, 

281. 
Londonder^ry, 239. 
Lorraine, 141, 206, 315, 310. 

Dukes of, 154, 211, 200. 
Louis of Nassau, 220. 
Louisiana, 251. 
Louvois (loo vwii^), 209. 
Low Countries. See Nciherlands. 
Lowositz, 201. 
Loyola, 208, 209. 
Luca^nians, 91. 
Lucknow, 287. 
Lusitii^nia, 98. 
Luther, M., 202, 203, 209. 
Lutherans, 243. 
Lutzen (loot^zen), battles at, 240, 

254, 300. 
Luxemburg, 268. 
Luxor, 39. 
Lycur^'gus, 51-53. 
Lyd^ia, 19, 26, 30, 48. 



Lyons, 113. 
Lysim^achus, 77. 

Macaco, 249. 

Macedonia, Macedonians, 29, 82, 

64, 65, 74-81, 96, 97, 102. 
Macedonia, Kings of: 

Philip II. (B. C. 859-336), 64, 
65. 

Alexander (B. C. 336-323), 
72, 74-76. 

Cassander (315-296), 77. 

Philip V. (220-178), 80, 8.1. 

Perseus, (178-107), 81. 
Madrid, 298. 
Magdeburg, 245. 
Magellan, 192. 
Magenta, 311. 
Magi, Magians, 25, 27, 28. 
Magnesia, 97. 
Magyars, 142, 143. 
Maine, County of, France, 157. 
Maintenon (niaNt noN), Mme.,209. 
Malek Shah, 153. 
Malian Gulf, 57. 
Malplaquet (-plii kf/), 270. 
Malta. 160, 242. 
Mamelukes, 158, 159, 295. 
Man^deville, Sir John, 188. 
Manlius, Titus, 90. 
Mantine^a, 04. 
Maoris, 288. 
Marat (ma nlO, 292. 
Mar'athon, 29, 50, 07. 
Marco Polo, 107. 
Mardo^nius, 30, 58. 
Maren^go, 295. 
Margaret of Anjou (ax zhoo^), 

174. 
Margaret of Navarre, 204. 
Maria Leczinska, 272. 
Maria Louisa, Empress, 299. 



(344) 



Mar 



INDEX. 



Moo 



Marian Party, 102-104. 

Marie Antoinette^ 27P., 200-202. 

Marienburg (ma rO^en boorg^), 

IGO, 258. 
JMarignano (mil ren y;i''no), 200. 
Marius, Cains, 100-102. 
Marlborongh, John, Duke of, 240, 

241. 
Marlborougb, Sarah, Duchess of, 

240, 241. 
Mars, 84. 

Marseilles (-sal^/), 20G. 
Marston Moor, 234. 
Maryland, 254. 
Massachusetts, 252, 277. 
Massillon (ma seel yoN^), 271. 
Matilda of England, IBO. 
Maurice of Nassau, 228. 
Mazarin (mil za rax^), 25G, 257. 
Mazzini (mat se^ne), 309. 
Mecca, 134. 
Mecklenburg, 245. 
Media, Medes, 12, 13, 25, 50. 
Medici (med^e che), 198. 

" Catherine de', 211, 214. 

" Cosmo de', 1(34. 

" John de'. See Leo A'., 
Fojye. 
Medici, Lorenzo de', 104, 188. 

" Marie de', 205. 
Medina (ma de^na), 134. 
Mediterranean Sea, 10-12, 17, 22, 
26, 75, 79, 103, 109, 135, 137, 
1G5, 177, 20G, 207, 270. 
Meerut, 287. 
Melbourne, 288. 
Memphis, 34, 38. 
Mene-la^us, 45. 
Menschikoff, 258. 
Mentz, 245. 

Mesopota^mia, 112, 114. 
Messenia, Messenians, 48, 59, G4, G8. 



Messi^'ah born, 109. 
MetcKlus, Consul, 94. 
Metz, 211, 314, 315. 
Mexico, 102, 222, 312, 321, 322. 
" Maximilian, Emperor of, 

312. 
Michigan, 310. 
Middle Ages, 8, 127. 
"Middle Kingdom," 141, 180. 
Milan, 117, 143, 102, 103, 198-201, 

312, 
Mile^tus, 29, 70. 
Milti^ades, 50. 
Milton, John, 238. 
Minor^ca, 270. 
Mississippi K., 193, 251, 272, 273, 

319, 323. 
Mississippi Scheme, 271, 272. 
Mityle^ne, 01, 70. 
Mode^na, 311. 
Mogul Empire, 107. 
Mohacz, 205. 
Mohammed, 134. 
Mohammedans, 134-137, 108. 
Molda''via. See Roumania. 
Moliere (mo le er^), 271. 
Mondego Bay, 299. 
Mongols, 100, 1G7, 255. 
Monmouth, Duke of, 238, 239. 
MontebeFlo, 311. 
Montene^gro, 317. 
Monterey ^ 312, 322. 
Montfort, Simon de, persecutes 

Albigenses, 177. 
Montfort, Simon de, son, leads 

English Barons, 170. 
Montpel^lier, 187. 
Montpensier (moN poN se a), Duke 

of, 307, 317. 
Montreal, 250. 
Moore, Sir John, 299. 
Moors, 34, 190, 192. 



(315) 



Mor 



INDEX. 



Ohi 



Morat (mo rii^), 181. 


New^foundland, 193. 




More, Sir Thomas, 218. 


New Jersey, 251. 




More^a, 1G3. 


New Mexico, 322. 




Moreau (mo ro^), 295. 


New Orleans, 271, 272. 




Moscow, 300. 


New South Wales, 288 




Munich, 261. 


Newspapers, 270, 277. 




Miinster, 247. 


Newton, Sir I., 238. 




Munychia (mu nik^ia), 03. 


New York, 251, 278. 




Murat (mii ru^), 298. 


New Zealand, 288. 




Myc^ale, 58. 


Niagara, 270, 319. 
Nibelung-ei), 188. 




Nancy (noN^se), battle at, 181. 


Nice, in Bithynia, 118, 


154. 


Nantes, Edict of, 251, 205, 200, 209. 


Nicome^dia, 117. 




" Executions at, 294. 


Nicop^olis, 108. 




Naples, 131, 143. 


Niemen (nee^men) K., 


298. 


" Kiiigdomof,149, 179, 190, 


Nightingale, Florence, 


282. 


197-199, 272, 304. 


Nile, 7, 34, 38, 75, 76, 1 


57, 295. 


Naples, Queen Joanna of, 179. 


Nimeguen (ne ma'gen) 


, 220, 208. 


Nar^ses, 132. 


Nineveh, 11, 13-15. 




Narva, Siege of, 257. 


Noah, 9. 




Naseby, battle at, 234. 


Nomads, 7, 29, 100. 




Navarino (-e^no), 280, 305. 


Nord^ling-en, 240. 




Navarre^ 158, 190. 


Normans, Normandy, 


147-151, 


King Charles of, 179. 


157, 292. 




" " Henry of. See 


Northmen, 142, 140, 14 


7. 


France, King Henry IV. 


Northumberland, Duke 


of, 219. 


Necho, 30. 


Norway, 40, 254. 




Nehemi^ah, 24. 


Notre Dame (nOtr dilm 


0, 292. 


Nelson, Admiral, 295-297. 


Nova Scotia, 250. 




Netherlands, 141, noie, 105, 180, 


Novgorod, 140. 




181, 185, 190, 198, 199, 207, 


Numantia, 98. 




208, 217, 221, 224-229, 242, 


Numidia, 100. 




294. 






Netherlands, Spanish, 228, 207- 


Gates, Titus, 237. 




271. 


Octa^vian. See Rom. 


Emperors, 


Netherhmds, Austrian, 271, 295, 


Aiifjusfn.'^: 




303. 


Octa^vius, Tribune, 99. 




Netherlands, United, 220, 229, 247. 


Odo^acer, 123, 127. 




Kingdom of, 304, 300. 


Od^'ssey, 00. 




William I.,^King of (1815- 


(Eta (e^ta), Mt., 29, 57. 




1830), 304. 


Oglethorpe, Gen., 270. 




Netherlands, New. See 'New York. 


Ohio R., 272. 





(346) 



Old 



INDEX, 



Per 



Oldenburg, House of, in 


Dcn- 


Palestine, 12, 15, 18, 21-24, 74, 75, 


mark, 254. 




152-159. 


Olga, Queen of Kussia, 147. 




PamphyFia, 19. 


Olynipia, in Elis, 73. 




Paper invented, 189. 


Olympic Gaines, 49, G4, 69. 




Paphlagonians, 19. 


Olym'pus, Mt., 40. 




Paraguay, 320. 


Omar Pasha^ 281. 




Paris, city, 150, 151, 173, 186, 212- 


Ommi'ades, 136. 




214, 264, 267, 273, 276, 290- 


Oracles, 47, 48, 57, 85. 




295, 301, 307, 308, 310, 311, 


Orange, Princes of: 




314, 315, 316. 


William the Silent, 225-228. 


Paris, Counts of, 142, 143. 


Maurice, 228. 




Parliament, Eng., 170, 230-241, 


William Henry, 239, 268 


269. 


274, 277-281. 


See England, Kings of, Wil- 


Parma, 311. 


liam III. 




" Margaret, Duchess of, 225. 


Orino'co Pv., 191. 




" Alexander, Duke of, 227, 


Orkneys, Is., 222. 




228. 


Orleans, 174; Duke of, brc 


. of 


Parthia, Parthians, 26, 77, 78, 104, 


Charles VI., 179; Duke of. 


106, 113-115. 


Regent of France, 271, 


274; 


Parysa^tes, 30. 


Duke of, Ph. Egalite^ 


291; 


Pascal, 271. 


Duke of, Louis Philippe 


,306 


Patricians, Rom., 83-89, 99. 


(see France, Kings of ) ; Duke 


Pausa^nias, 58. 


of, son of Louis Phil 


ippe, 


Pa^-ia, 131, 139, 201. 


306; Duchess of, 307. 




Peasants, 142, 152, 172, 178, 179, 


Oron^tes Pv., 19, 77. 




203. 


Osi^ris, 37, 38. 




Pekin, 166. 


Osnabruck, 247. 




Pelasgi, 43. 


Ostracism, 54, 55, 59. 




Pelay^, 135. 


Ostrogoths, 121, 130. 




Peloponnesian War, 60-62, 70. 


Othman, 167. 




Peloponne^sus, 44, 48, 51-53, 64. 


Ottawa Pv., 251. 




Penn, W^m., 253. 


Ottoman Empire, 167, 243. 




Pennsylvania, 252, 253, 323. 


Oude (owd), 287. 




Per^gamus, 98. 


Oudenarde, 270. 




Per^icles (-clees), 59, 60, 70, 72. 


Overys^sel, 268. 




Perry, Commodore, 319. 


Ovid, 109. 




Persep^olis, 75. 


Ox^enstiern^ 246. . 




Persia, Persians, 13, 24-33, 56-58, 


Oxford University, 172, 186. 




76, 205. 
Persia, Kings of: 


Pacific 0., 166, 192. 




Cyrus fB. C. 558), 18, 24-26, 


Piid^ua, 187, 199. 




*70. 



(347) 



Per 



INDEX. 



Pru 



Persia, Kings of (continued): 

Cambyses (529), 20, 27, r,.3. 

The False Smerdis (522). 

Darius I. (521), 27-29, 50. 

Xerxes (480), 29, 57. 

Artaxerxes (405), 30. 

Darius II. (424), SO. 

Artaxerxes II. (405), 31, 02, 
63. 

Artaxerxes III. (359), 31. 

Arses (338), 31. 

Darius III. (336), 31, 32, 74, 
75. 
Persian Empire, New, 115, 110, 

119. 
Persian Gulf, 15, 17. 
Peru, 192, 222, 321. 
Peter the Hermit, 153. 
Petition of Rights, Eng., 232, 233. 
Petrarch, 187, 188. 
Pha^raoh (title), 38. 
Phid^ias, 72, 73. 
Philadelphia, 278, 318, 324. 
Philip of Austria, 198. 
Philippa, Queen of England, 171. 
Philippine Is., 192, 276. 
Philistines, 12, 22. 
Philopoemen, 81. 
Philosophers, Greek, 70-72. 
Phocis, 49, 65. 
Phoenicia, Phoenicians, 10, 12, 15- 

18, 26, 31, 36, 40, 44, 74. 
Phrygians, 19, 30. 
Phytic, 63. 
Pindar, 68. 
Pi-sis^tra-tus, 54, 73. 
Pit^tacus, 70. 
Pitt, Wm., Earl of Chatham, 262, 

276, 277. 
Pitt, Wm., son, 296. 
Pius VII., 296, 301. 
« IX., 309, 316. 



Pizar^ro, 192. 

Plague in London, 237. 

Planta^genets, 169-175. 

Phissy, battle of, 285. 

Platffi^a, 30, 58. 

Plato, 71. 

Plattsburgh, 319. 

Plebe^ians, 84-89. 

Po, Pviv., 96. 

Poitiers (pwji te jV), 136, 171. 

Poitou (pwii too''), 157. 

Poland, Poles, 255, 257, 259, 262, 

203, 272, 300, 308. 
Poland, Augustus II. King of, 257. 
Pole, Cardinal, 220. 
Polk, Pres., 321. 
Poly carp. Bishop, 113. 
Pomera^nia, 245. 
Pompadour, Mme. de, 272. 
Pompeii (-pa ye), destroyed, 112. 
Pompey, 103-105. 
Pontius, 91. 

Pontus, War with, 101-103. 
Pope, Alex., 241. 
Popes defend Rome, 137; plural- 
ity of. 183. 
Portugal, Portuguese, 98, 191, 229, 

248, 249, 298, 299. 
Prague, 183, 184, 243, 244. 
Praxit^eles, 72. 
Priam, 45. 

Presburg, Treaty of, 296, 299. 
Printing, 159, 175, 189, 190. 
Provence (pro voNss^), 138, 141, 

note, 162. 
Provence, Language of, 187. 
Provinces, Roman, 95-98, 107, 109, 

112. 
Prussia, Prussians, 160, 259-263, 

272, 276, 300, 303, 312-315. 
Prussia, Kings of: 

Frederic I. (A. D. 1701), 259. 
(348) 



Pru 



INDEX. 



Rom 



Prussia, Kings of (continued): 
Frederic William I. (1713), 

259, 260. 
Frederic II. the Great (1740- 

1780), 200-262. 
Frederic William III. (1797), 

297, 298, 301. 
Frederic AVilliam IV. (1840), 

309. 
William I. (1801), 312-315. 
Pultii^va, 257. 
Punic Wars, 93-97. 
Pute^li, 102. 
Pydna, 81. 
Pyramids, 35, 295. 
Pyrenees, 95, 135, 139, 267. 
Pyrrhus, 91, 92. 

Quebec, 250, 272, 273, 276. 
Queretii^ro, 312. 
Quito, 320. 

Kacine (ril secn^), 271. 

Kaleigh, Sir W\, 221, 231. 

Ram''eses, 36. 

Ka^phia, 12. 

Kaven^na, 131, 132, 138, 200. 

Raymond, Count of Toulouse, 154, 

176. 
Eed Sea, 17, 22. 
Reformation, The, 8,202-209,217, 

218, 225. 
Reg'ulus, Consul, 94. 
Rehobo^am, 23. 
Req^iesens, 226, 227. 
Rheims (reemz), 174. 
Rhine, 109, 110, 119, 129, 164, 266, 

270. 
Rhode Island, 252. 
Rhodes, 49, 100, 204. 
Rhone, 101, 129, 141, 206. 
Richard, Prince, of England, 158. 



Richelieu (reesh le u), Cardinal, 
244, 246. 

Ridley, Bishop, 220. 

Rienzi (re en^ze), 163. 

Rio Gran^de, 322. 

Robert of Normandy, 150, 154. 
" the Strong, 150, 151. 

Robespierre, 292, 293. 

Rochelle, 232, 266. 

Roderick, last of the Goths, 135. 

Roland, Mn)e., 292. 

Rollo, 147, 148, 151. 

Roman Emperors: Augustus, 107- 
110; Tiberius, 110; Caligula, 
110, 111; Claudius, Nero, 111; 
Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, 
Nerva, Trajan, 112; Hadrian, 
112, 113; T. A. Antoninus, 
M. A. Antoninus, Commodus, 
113; — Sept. Severus, 114; Car- 
acal la, 114, 115; Macrinus, 
Elagabalus, A. Severus, 115; 
Decius, Valerian, 116, 121; 
Aurelian, 116; Diocletian and 
Maximian, 116, 117; Con- 
stantino the Great, 117, 118; 
Constans, Constantine II., 
Constantius II., Julian, Jo- 
vian, 119; — Valentinian, Va- 
lens, 121; Theodosius, 121, 
122. 
Roman Emperors of the East: Ar- 
cadius, 122; Zeno, 123; Justi- 
nian, 132, 133; Heraclius, Leo 
III., 133; Constantine VI., 
140; Alexis, 154; Isaac An- 
gelus, 157; John Pala3olo^gus, 
184; Constantine XII., 168. 
Roman Emperors of the West and 
Kings of Germany: 
Charlemagne (A. D. 800), 139- 
141. 



(349) 



Rom 



INDEX. 



Rus 



Koman Emperors of the West and 

Kings of Germany (cont'd) : 
Louis the Mild (814), 141. 
Lothaire (840), 141. 
Louis II. (855). 
Charles II. (875). 

" III. (876-888), 151. 
Otho I. (962), 143. 

" IL (973), Otho 111.(983), 

144, 
Henry II. (1002), Conrad II. 

(1024), 144. 
Henry III. (1039), 144. 

IV. (1056-1106), 144, 

145. 
Conrad III. (1138), 156. 
Frederic I. (1152). 156, 162. 
Henry VL (1191), 162. 
Frederic II. (1212-1250), 157, 

158, 162. 
Paidolph I. (1273-1292), 162. 
Louis V. (1314), 182. 
Charles IV. (1347), 182. 
Wenceslaus (1378), 182, 183. 
Kupert (1400), 183. 
Sigismund (1410), 183, 184, 

203. 
Albert II. (1438), 185. 
Frederic III. (1440), 185. 
Maximilian I. (1493), 185, 200. 
Charles V. (1519), 198-209. 
Ferdinand I. (1558), 205, 208, 

242, 243. 
Maximilian II. (1564), 243. 
Rudolph II. (1576), 243, 244. 
Matthias (1612), 244. 
Ferdinand II. (1619), 244- 

24(). 
Ferdinand III. (1637), 246. 
Leopold I. (1658), 259, 270. 
Joseph I. (1705), 270. 
Charles VI. (1711), 260, 270. 



Roman Emperors of the West and 
Kings of Germany (cont'd) : 
Charles VII. (1742), 260, 261. 
Francis I, (1745), 261. 
Joseph II. (1765), 261, 262. 
Leopold II. (1790). 
Francis II. (1792-1806), 295, 
296. See Austria, Fran- 
cis I. 

Roman Empire, 8, 104, 108-123, 
127, 128. 

Roman Empire of the East, 122, 
123, 130-133, 146, 148, 163, 
167, 168. 

Roman Empire of the West: 
Honorius, 122; Augustulus, 
123. 

Roman Empire of the West, Re- 
vived, 140-144, 161, 182-185, 
247, 296. 

Rome, City, 34, 82-85, 88, 100, 102, 
109, 111, 122, 123, 127, 137, 
140, 141, 143, 162, 163, 202, 
204, 274, 309, 316. 

Rome, Kingdom, 83. Kings: Ro- 
mulus, Numa, Tullus Hosti- 
lius, Ancus Martins, Tarquin 
I., Servius Tullius, Tarquin 
IL, 83. 

Rome, Republic, 40, 83-107; Re- 
vived, 138, 163, 309. 

Roses, Wars of, 174, 175, 190. 

Rosetta Stone, 80. 

RothJi^ris, 131. 

Rouma^nia, 281, 282. 

Rubicon, R., 105. 

Rupert, Prince, 234. 

Russell, Lord Wm., 238. 

Russia, Russians, 19, 131, 133, 146, 
147, 167, 221, 255-258, 261- 
263, 280-282, 298, 300, 304- 
306, 317. 



(350) 



Rus 



INDEX. 



Sen 



Russia, Sovereigns of: 

Kiiric (A. I). 8G2-870), 140. 
Vladimir (980-1015), 147. 
Yaroslav (1019-1055), 147. 
Ivan III. (14G2-1505), 255. 

" IV. (1538), 255. 
Feodor I. (1584-1598), 255. 
Michael III. (1G10-1G45), 

255. 
Feodor II. (1G7G), 25G. 
Ivan V. with Peter I. (1G82), 

256. 
Peter I. (alone, 1G89), 25G- 

258. 
Catherine I. (1725-1727), 258. 
Elizabeth (1741), 2G2. 
Peter III. (17G2), 2G2. 
Catherine II. (17G2-179G), 

262, 263. 
Alexander I. (1801), 298-301, 

304, 305. 
Nicholas I. (1825), 281, 305- 

308. 
Alexander II. (1855), 282, 317. 
Paiy Diaz (de'ath) Cid, 187. 
Pvye-House Plot, 237. 
Rys^vick, Treaty of, 240, 270. 

Sahines, 91. 

Sacred War, Greek, 65. 
Sad^wa, battle of, 313. 
SaKadin, 156, 157, 159. 
Salanian^ca, University, 192. 
Salamis, battle of, 30, 57, 67. 
Salic Law, 178, 307. 
Salon ica (-ne^'ka), 317. 
Samarcand^ 136, 189. 
Samaria, 24. 
Sam^'mura^mit, 11. 
Samniiim, Samnites, 89-91. 
Samos, 69. 
San Francisco, 322. 

( 



Sanhedrim, 79. 

Santa Sophia, Church of, 132. 

Saone (sone), 151. 

Sapor, 116. 

Sar^acens, 133-138, 148, 153, 155- 

159, 207. 
Saratoga, battle at, 278. 
Sardinia, Isl., 94, 123, 132. 

" Kingdom, 303. 

" Victor Emanuel, King 

of, 311, 312. See lUdy. 
Sardis, 19, 29. 
Sassan^idie, 115, 132. 
Savannah R., 276. 
Savonarola, 198. 
Savoy, 269; House of, 309. 
Saxons, 121, 122, 129, 139, 140, 451. 
Saxony, Electors of: 

Frederic the Wise (1486- 
1525), 203. 

John Frederic (1532), 207. 

Maurice (1548-1553), 207, 208. 

John George I. (1611), 245, 
246. 
Saxony, Henry the Fowler, Duke 

of and King of Germany, 143. 
Schleswig-Holstein War, 312. 
Schliemann (shlee^-), 45. 
Schonbrunn, Treaty of, 299. 
Scio, 305. 
Scipio, 96, 97. 
Scotland, Scots, 121, 131, 170, 171, 

230-236, 240, 274, 275. 
Scotland, Sovereigns of: 

James IV. (1488), 216. 

" V.(1513),211,216,218. 

Mary (1542), 211, 219-221. 
Scott, Gen., 322. 
Scythians, 7, 13, 23, 25, 28, 78. 
Seleucidio. Sec Syria, Kings of. 
Sedgemoor, battle at, 239. 
Senti^num, 91. 
i51) 



Sep 



INDEX. 



St. P 



Sepoy Rebellion, 280, 287. 

Servia, 317. 

Servile AVar, Rom., 101. 

Sevasto^pol, 282. 

Seven Weeks' War, 313. 

" Years' " 2G1, 2G2, 27G, 
285. 

Sextiiis, L., 89. 

Slbrza (sfort'sa), L., 108. 

Shakespeare, 223. 

Sbip-nioney, 233. 

Shrewsbury, battle at, 173. 

Shem, Semites, 10, 16, 10. 

Siberia, 255, 306. 

Sicily, 40, 44, 61, 62, 82, 92-95, 
101, 102, 123, 132, 137, 162, 
163, 178, 298, 312. 

Sidney, Algernon, 238. 
" " Philip, 223. 

Sidon, 17, 18. 

Silesia (se If/si a), 260-262. 

Sinai, 35. 

Simon^ides, 68. 

Sirmium, 117. 

Slavonians, 131, 139. 

Smalcald, League of, 205, 208. 

Smyrna, 113. 

Social W^ar, Greek, 64. 
" Rom., 101. 

Socrates, 63, 70-72. 

Solferino (-e'no), 312. 

Solomon, 11, 18, 10, 22. 

Solon, 53-55, 70. 

Somerset, Duke of. 218, 219. 

Sophia of Russia, 256. 

Soph^ocles, 69. 

Soto, Ferdinand de, 103. 

Spain, Spaniards, 17, 95-98, 105, 
121, 122, 128, 130, 135, 136, 
139, 100-19.3, 198, 228, 229, 
242, 243, 240, 250, 260-273, 
298, 299, 303-307, 313-317. 



Spain, Kings and Queens of: 

Joanna (1516), 108. 

Charles I. (1516). See Rom. 
Emp. of Wesi, Charles V. 

Philip II. (1556), 208, 210- 
222, 225-229, 242, 243, 264. 

Philip III. (1591), 229. 
" IV. (1621), 265. 

Charles II. (1665), 270. 

Philip Y. (1700-1746), 270, 
271. 

Charles lY. (1788), 298, 290. 

Ferdinand YII. (1814), 208, 
200, 301, 304, 306. 

Isabella II. (1833-1868), 307, 
313. 

Amadeo I. (1870), 316. 

Alfonso (1873), 317. 
Spanish Succession, War of, 240, 

270, 271. 
Sparta, Spartans, 29, 31, 44, 51-53, 

57-64, 68. 
Spartacus, 102, 103, 
Spenser, Edm., 223. 
Spice Is., 228. 
Spires, Diet at, 204. 
Spole'to, 142. 
Spurs, battle of, 216. 
Stafiord, Lord, 237. 
Star Chamber, Eng. Court, 233. 
States General, French, 273, 279, 

290. 
States General of Netherlands, 

224. 
St. Denis, Abbots of, 143. 
Steele, Richard, 241. 
St. Helena, 302. 

St. John, Knights of. See Hos- 
pitallers. 
St. Lavrrence R., 272. 
Stoics, 113. 
St. Petersburg, 257. 



(352) 



Str 



INDEX. 



Tiro 



Strafford, Earl of, 233. 
Stralsund, 245, 258. 
Strasburg, 269, 315. 
Stratford de Redcliffe, Lord, 281. 
Stre^litz, 256. 

Stuart, House of, 230-241, 274, 275. 
" James Francis Edward, 

239, 240, 274, 275. 
Stuart, Charles Edward, 275. 
Sulla, L. Cornelius, 100-102. 
Sully, Duke of, 257. 
Surat, 231. 
Susa, 75. 
Sweden, Swedes, 204, 246, 251, 

254, 255, 299, 300. 
Sweden, Kings and Queens of: 

Margaret Waldemar, 254. 

Gustavus Vasa (1523), 254. 

Gustavus Adolphus (1611), 
245, 246, 254. 

Christina (1632), 254, 255. 

Charles X. (1654), 255. 

Charles XII. (1697), 257, 258. 
Switzerland, 101, 129, 164, 165, 

204. 
Sydney, 287, 288. 
Syracuse, 62, 96. 
Syria, Syrians, 12, 15, 18, 19, 31, 

77, 103, 135, 154-156, 158. 
Syria, Kings of: 

Seleucus (B. C. 301-280), 77. 

Antiochus III., 78, 97. 

Tamerlane (Timour), 167. 

Tarentum, 91. 

Tartars, 153, 158, 166, 255, 262. 

Tasmania, 288. 

Taylor, Gen., 321. 

Temesvar, battle, 308. 

Templars, Knights, 155, 156, 160, 

178. 
Tetzel, 202, 203. 

Hist. — 30. (.3;-) 



Teuto^nes, 101. 

Teutonic Knights, 155, 160, 259. 

Texas, 321, 322. 

Tha^les, 70. 

Thapsus, 105. 

Thebes, Egypt, 34, 37, 38. 

" Thebans, Greek, 57, 63- 

65. 
Themis^tocles, 57, 72. 
Theod^ric the Great, 130, 132. 
Theodo^sius, Gen., 121. 
Therma^ic Gulf, 65. 
Therniop^yla% 29, 50, 57. 
The^seus (-use), 45. 
Thessaloni^ca, 105, 137. 
Thessaly, 30. 
Thiers (te er^, 315, 316. 
Thirty Years' War, 244-247, 259, 

266. 
Thrace, Thracians, 19, 29, 77, 118, 

122. 
Thrasyb^ulus, 63. 
Thucyd^ides, 69, 70. 
Thuringia, 142. 
Tiber R., 82. 

Tiberias, Lake, battle at, 156, 
Tientsin, Treaty of, 286. 
Tigris R., 10, 32, 114. 
Torgau (-gow). League of, 204. 
Tories, Eng., 238, 274. 
Toulon^ Siege of, 293. 
Toulouse, 151; Counts of, 154, 

187. 
Tours, battle of, 136, 138, 315 
Trafalgar, battle, 296. 
Trent, Council at, 207, 208. 
Tribunes, Roman, 87, 99, 100, 163. 
Triple Alliance, 268. 
Triumvirate, First, 104. 

Second, 106, 107. 
Trochu, Gen., 315. 
Troubadours, 187. 
3) 



Tro 



INDEX. 



Wes 



Troy, Siege of, 45. 


V^uidois (vo dwaO, 207, 210, 235. 


" Truce of God," 152. 


Venezue^la, 320. 


Tudor, House of, 175, 215, 223. 


Venice, 157, 163, 168, 191, 199, 294, 


Tunis, 158, 206. 


295, 313. 


Turkey, Turks, 153-155, 158-160, 


Vera Cruz, 322. 


166-168, 199, 204-208, 255, 


VerceFlse, 101. 


258, 281-283, 305, 306, 317. 


Verdun, Treaty of, 141. 


Turkey, Sultans of: 


Versailles, 273, 278, 315, 316. 


Othman (A. D. 1288-1326), 


Vervins (ver vax^). Treaty of, 


167. 


228. 


Amurath I. (1360), 168. 


Vesta, 85. 


Bajazet I. (1389-1403), 167, 


Vesuvius, Mt., 112; battle near, 90. 


168. 


Victoria, Colony, 288. 


Mohammed II„ 168. 


Vienna, Austria, 113, 205, 294, 


Solyman I. (1520), 204-206, 


296, 299, 303, 308, 313. 


242. 


Vienne, France, 113. 


Selim II, (1566-1574), 243. 


Vincennes^, 177. 


Mohammed III. (1595-1618), 


Vinea, Peter de, 187. 


243. 


Virgil, 109. 


Abdul Medjid (1840), 281. 


Virginia, 221, 252, 319, 323. 


Abd-cl-Aziz (1861-1876), 317. 


Visconti (-te), 163. 


Turnhout, battle of, 228. 


Visigoths, 121, 122, 129. 


Tuscany, 142, 311. 


Volga K., 123. 


" Twelve Tables," Laws of, 88. 


Volscians, 87, 88. 


Tyrtae^us; 68. 






Wakefield, battle, 174. 


Ulm (oolm), 296. 


Wales, 129, 131, 170. 


United States, 251, 276-278, 286, 


Wallace, 170. 


318-324. 


Wallachia (val la^kia). See Rou- 


Universities, 174, 183, 186, 187, 


viania. 


305. 


Wallenstein (-stine), 244-246. 


Upsria, 254. 


Walpole, Pvob't, 275. 


Urban II., Pope, 153. 


Walsingham, 223. 


Uruguay, 320. 


Walwick, Earl of, 174, 175. 


Utrecht, Province, 226, 268. 


Washington, 276, 278, 318. 


Treaty of, 241, 270. 


Waterloo, battle, 302. 




Wat Tyler's Rebellion, 172. 


Valois (val wii). House of, 178, 210, 


Weimar, Duke Bernhard of, 246. 


214, 266. 


Wellington, Duke of, 299, 301, 


Vandals, 122, 123. 


302. 


Van Tromp, Admiral, 235. 


Westphalia, Kingdom of, 298. 


Vauban (v6 boN^, 269. 


Treaty of, 247, 266. 



(354) 



Whi 



IXDEX. 



Zwi 



Whigs, Eng., 238, 274. 








York, Family of, in Eng., 174, 


Wicliffe, 172, 173, 188. 








175, 215. 


Wilberforce, 280. 








York, James, Duke of. See Eng- 


Wilkes, J., 276, 277. 








land, King James II. 


Wolfe, Gen., 272. 








York, Eichard, Duke of, 174. 


Wolsey, Cardinal, 200, 


216 


21 


7. 


" city, 114, 117, 233, 234. 


Worcester (woos^ter). 


battle 


at. 


Yorktown, Ya., 278. 


235. 








Yuste (yoos'ta), 208. 


World's Fair, 281, 324. 








Ypsilanti (ip se lan'te), 305. 


Worms, Diet at, 203. 










Writing, Art of, 10, 18 


35, 


44, 


66, 


Za^ma, battle at, 96. 


80, 189. 








Zapolya, J., 205, 206. 
Zealand, 225, 226. 


Xanthip^pus, 94. 








Zend Avesta, 32. 


Xenoph^anes, 71, 








Zorndorf, 262. 


Xenophon, 31, 70. 








Zo^roas^ter, 25, 28, 32. 


Xeres (lia^res), battle of, 135. 




Zurich, 204. 


Xerxes, 29, 30, 57. 








Zwingli, Ulrich, 204. 



(355) 



THE ECLECTIC GEOGRAPHIES; 

COMPLETE SERIES IN THREE BOOKS 

Primary, Intermediate, and School Geography. 



DISTINCTIVE FEATURES: 

1. Uneqiialed mechanical execution. 

2. Treatment of the subject as a Science, and not as 
a mere collection of facts. 

3. A Philosophic Plan faithfully carried out. 

4. Prominence of Physical Gcogr-apJiy : the same 
being interwoven with local geography from the begin- 
ning. 

5. Style of language adapted to each particular grade. 

6. Not overcrowded with small details. 

7. Illustrations new and interesting. 

8. Complete and accurate statistics. 

9. The best School Maps publish-^d in America. 

10. Complete scientific treatise on map-drawing, with 
full directions for projecting, coloring, etc. 



TJie Eclectic Geographies present the study in accord- 
ance with the newest and most p7'actical methods. They 
have won the highest appi'oval of leading educators, and 
are no7v extensively used in many of the best schools of 
the country. 

Teachers and othcj's intei'ested in seciwing the best school 
text-books are invited to correspond with the publishers of 
the Eclectic Series. Libei'al terms offc7'ed on sample copies 
and supplies for first introduction. 

Address 

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., 

Cincinnati and New York. 



VENABLE'S UNITED STATES. 

A SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. By W. 

H. Venarle. i2mo., 270 pp. Illustrated with Maps, 
Charts, and other engravings. 

" IVe are incHned fo pronounce it, on the tvholc^ the best of its class 
and size. . . . The maps are far the best 7ie remeniber seeing 
in any Ameincan book of this class ; and the poj-traits are large, and 
most of than very good ones.''' . . . — The Nation. 



The Publishers rc^peotfully invite the attention of educators to 
the above announced work, lur which are claimed the following excel- 
lent features : 

Graphic and picturesque style. 

Brevltijy gecured by rejection of unimportant matter, rather than 
by severe condensation. 

Unity of denifjn nnd execution sustained throughout. 

Methodical arraiKjement of topics in each chapter. 

A conspicuous piesentation of our civil and domestic history, in- 
cluding well-digested synopses of progress in industry, invention, 
and culture. 

A careful tracing out of the elements of our population as to 
nationality, religious peculiarities, and politics, with a clear account 
of migration and the prevailing course it has taken. 

Just prominence to the hislori/ of the Great West. 

Accuracy and completeness of projjer names. 

Discriminating use of dates, and devices for fixing important dates 
in the mind. 

Foot-notes referring to literary viatter relating to subjects discussed 
in the text. 

A method of staling questions cahulated- to avoid, conveying to the 
pupil information that should come froui him, and which stimulates the 
pupil to think. 

An original system of general questions, and directions for teacher 
and pupil. 

An original system of biographical rcvieics. 

Full-page maps, of a greater number than will be found in any 
other similar text-book, and unequaled for illustrative value, accuracy, 
and beauty. 

Portraits, very numerous and authentic, and executed by the 
best artists. 

A copious index of all important matters. 



VAN ANTWERP. BRAGG & CO.. 

Cincinnati and New ^ork. 



THALHEIMER^S ANCIENT HISTORY. 

MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY, from the earliest 
times to the fall of the Western Empire. By M. 
E. Thalheimer, formerly Teacher of History and 
Composition in Packer Collegiate Institute. 8vo, 
378 pp. Handsomely ilhistrated with full-page 
engravings of Ancient Temples and other his- 
torical objects, charts of the principal cities, and 
accurate and finely executed double-page maps of 
the vaiious countries considered in the text. 
Complete index and ^pronouncing vocabulary. 



NOTICES OF THE PEESS. 

** The most serviceable work of its class within the reach of onr 
schools. It has, indeed, no rival worth mentioning." — Tlie IVa« 
liou. 

** Miss Thalheimer has certainly been too modest in her preface, for 
she has written the best American book of its kind. The volume 
contains several good maps and illustrations, and is published in a 
style of unusual mechanical excellence." — N. Y. Illdepeiicleilt. 

^'Miss Thalheimer's school history, whether viewed with reference 
to its substance or its form — the selection and arrangement of its 
matter, the style of its composition, or the mechanical dress in which 
all is presented to the public — is a genuine book. It may be fear- 
lessly accepted at its own valuation, and more. , . , — Cliris- 
tiaii Uuioii. 

" Take it altogether, it must be pronounced as so far surpassing all 
books partially intended to answer the same end, that com])arison is 
impossible; and being thus fitted for the purpose sought by the 
author — a lady well known for her attainments and her literary 
powers — it should be brought into general use, not only in schools, 
but for daily reference, and as a guide to extensive courses of study 
in the broad fields of ancient history." — Boston Traveller. 

By the same author: 
THALHEIMER'S MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY; 
THALHEIMER'S GENERAL HISTORY; 
THALHEIMER'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., Publishers, 

CINCINNATI AND NEW YORK. 



Eclectic Educational Series. 



BROWN'S Physiology and Hygiene. 



A Manual of Physiology and Hygiene. By 

Ryland T. Brown, M.D., Chemist-in-Chief in the 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
12mo, cloth, tinted paper. Illustrated. 288 pp. 

Many text-books on the science of Physiology and Hygiene 
luive been presented to the schools and colleges of this country 
during the past few years. These are chiefly abridgments of 
the larger works used in medical colleges ; and as Physiology is 
taught in those schools with a direct reference to the cure of 
disease, these books retain more or less of this character. But 
the study of Physiology in other than medical schools should 
have direct reference to the preservation of health rather than to 
the cure of disease. It has been the leading purpose of the author 
to make Hygiene the prominent feature of this book, and all 
other studies introduced subordinate. 

Brown's Physiology and Hygiene is divided into fifty 
LESSONS, with the intention of adapting it to the common 
division of the school year into terms of about twelve weeks 
each. If five lessons are recited each week, the work can be 
completed in one term and leave ten recitations for review. 
If it is desirable to devote more time to the study, the lessons 
may be divided and the work distributed over two terms, devot- 
ing the first to Physiology and the second to Hygiene. 

For the purpose of easy reference, the work is divided into 
SECTIONS, and each section is numbered. To adapt it to the 
method of teaching by topics, each section is introduced by a 
head-line in full-faced type, embracing the leading topic of the 
section. 

A BRIEF RECAPITULATION is appended to each les.son, for the 
assistance alike of teacher and pupils in reviewing. 



LIBEltAL TERMS ON SUPPLIES FOR INTRODUCTION. 

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., Publishers, 

Cincinnati and New York. 



